This file documents GNU LilyPond.

Copyright 1999–2004 by the authors

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.

GNU LilyPond — The music typesetter

This is the user manual for GNU LilyPond 2.5.x series. (See the bottom of this page for the exact version number).

A further source of information is the website, which can be found at http://www.lilypond.org/. The website contains on-line copies of this and other documentation.

We want to dedicate this program to all the friends that we met through music.

Han-Wen and Jan

Preface

It must have been during a rehearsal of the EJE (Eindhoven Youth Orchestra), somewhere in 1995 that Jan, one of the cranked violists told Han-Wen, one of the distorted French horn players, about the grand new project he was working on. It was an automated system for printing music (to be precise, it was MPP, a preprocessor for MusiXTeX). As it happened, Han-Wen accidentally wanted to print out some parts from a score, so he started looking at the software, and he quickly got hooked. It was decided that MPP was a dead end. After lots of philosophizing and heated email exchanges Han-Wen started LilyPond in 1996. This time, Jan got sucked into Han-Wen's new project.

In some ways, developing a computer program is like learning to play an instrument. In the beginning, discovering how it works is fun, and the things you cannot do are challenging. After the initial excitement, you have to practice and practice. Scales and studies can be dull, and if you are not motivated by others—teachers, conductors or audience—it is very tempting to give up. You continue, and gradually playing becomes a part of your life. Some days it comes naturally, and it is wonderful, and on some days it just does not work, but you keep playing, day after day.

Like making music, working on LilyPond can be dull work, and on some days it feels like plodding through a morass of bugs. Nevertheless, it has become a part of our life, and we keep doing it. Probably the most important motivation is that our program actually does something useful for people. When we browse around the net we find many people that use LilyPond, and produce impressive pieces of sheet music. Seeing that feels unreal, but in a very pleasant way.

Our users not only give us good vibes by using our program, many of them also help us by giving suggestions and sending bug reports, so we would like to thank all users that sent us bug reports, gave suggestions or contributed in any other way to LilyPond.

Playing and printing music is more than nice analogy. Programming together is a lot of fun, and helping people is deeply satisfying, but ultimately, working on LilyPond is a way to express our deep love for music. May it help you create lots of beautiful music!

Han-Wen and Jan

Utrecht/Eindhoven, The Netherlands, July 2002.

Notes for version 2.4

The most important developments in 2.4 are related. In LilyPond 2.4 TeX is no longer strictly necessary to engrave music. This is because LilyPond can now also layout pages and determine page breaks. Another notable feature is the syntax, which has been simplified even further compared to previous versions.

Special thanks for go to Lisa Opus Goldstein, who gave us many valuable suggestions for improving the manual.

Han-Wen and Jan

Utrecht/Eindhoven, The Netherlands, September 2004.

1 Introduction

1.1 Engraving

The art of music typography is called (plate) engraving. The term derives from the traditional process of music printing. Just a few decades ago, sheet music was made by cutting and stamping the music into a zinc or pewter plate in mirror image. The plate would be inked, the depressions caused by the cutting and stamping would hold ink. An image was formed by pressing paper to the plate. The stamping and cutting was completely done by hand. Making a correction was cumbersome, if possible at all, so the engraving had to be perfect in one go. Engraving was a highly specialized skill; a craftsman had to complete around five years of training before earning the title of master engraver, and another five years of experience were necessary to become truly skilled.

Nowadays, all newly printed music is produced with computers. This has obvious advantages; prints are cheaper to make, and editorial work can be delivered by email. Unfortunately, the pervasive use of computers has also decreased the graphical quality of scores. Computer printouts have a bland, mechanical look, which makes them unpleasant to play from.

The images below illustrate the difference between traditional engraving and typical computer output, and the third picture shows how LilyPond mimics the traditional look. The left picture shows a scan of a flat symbol from a Henle edition published in 2000. The center depicts a symbol from a hand-engraved Bärenreiter edition of the same music. The left scan illustrates typical flaws of computer print: the staff lines are thin, the weight of the flat symbol matches the light lines and it has a straight layout with sharp corners. By contrast, the Bärenreiter flat has a bold, almost voluptuous rounded look. Our flat symbol is designed after, among others, this one. It is rounded, and its weight harmonizes with the thickness of our staff lines, which are also much thicker than Henle's lines.

	Henle (2000)	Bärenreiter (1950)	LilyPond Feta font (2003)

In spacing, the distribution of space should reflect the durations between notes. However, many modern scores adhere to the durations with mathematical precision, which leads to poor results. In the next example a motive is printed twice. It is printed once using exact mathematical spacing, and once with corrections. Can you spot which fragment is which?

The fragment only uses quarter notes: notes that are played in a constant rhythm. The spacing should reflect that. Unfortunately, the eye deceives us a little; not only does it notice the distance between note heads, it also takes into account the distance between consecutive stems. As a result, the notes of an up-stem/down-stem combination should be put farther apart, and the notes of a down-up combination should be put closer together, all depending on the combined vertical positions of the notes. The first two measures are printed with this correction, the last two measures without. The notes in the last two measures form down-stem/up-stem clumps of notes.

Musicians are usually more absorbed with performing than with studying the looks of piece of music, so nitpicking about typographical details may seem academical. But it is not. In larger pieces with monotonous rhythms, spacing corrections lead to subtle variations in the layout of every line, giving each one a distinct visual signature. Without this signature all lines would look the same, and they become like a labyrinth. If a musician looks away once or has a lapse in concentration, they might lose their place on the page.

Similarly, the strong visual look of bold symbols on heavy staff lines stands out better when music is far away from reader, for example, if it is on a music stand. A careful distribution of white space allows music to be set very tightly without cluttering symbols together. The result minimizes the number of page turns, which is a great advantage.

This is a common characteristic of typography. Layout should be pretty, not only for its own sake, but especially because it helps the reader in her task. For performance material like sheet music, this is of double importance: musicians have a limited amount of attention. The less attention they need for reading, the more they can focus on playing itself. In other words, better typography translates to better performances.

These examples demonstrate that music typography is an art that is subtle and complex, and that producing it requires considerable expertise, which musicians usually do not have. LilyPond is our effort to bring the graphical excellence of hand-engraved music to the computer age, and make it available to normal musicians. We have tuned our algorithms, font-designs, and program settings to produce prints that match the quality of the old editions we love to see and love to play from.

1.2 Automated engraving

How do we go about implementing typography? If craftsmen need over ten years to become true masters, how could we simple hackers ever write a program to take over their jobs?

The answer is: we cannot. Typography relies on human judgment of appearance, so people cannot be replaced completely. However, much of the dull work can be automated. If LilyPond solves most of the common situations correctly, this will be a huge improvement over existing software. The remaining cases can be tuned by hand. Over the course of years, the software can be refined to do more and more automatically, so manual overrides are less and less necessary.

When we started we wrote the LilyPond program entirely in the C++ programming language; the program's functionality was set in stone by the developers. That proved to be unsatisfactory for a number of reasons:

• When LilyPond makes mistakes, users need to override formatting decisions. Therefore, the user must have access to the formatting engine. Hence, rules and settings cannot be fixed by us at compile time but must be accessible for users at run-time.
• Engraving is a matter of visual judgment, and therefore a matter of taste. As knowledgeable as we are, users can disagree with our personal decisions. Therefore, the definitions of typographical style must also be accessible to the user.
• Finally, we continually refine the formatting algorithms, so we need a flexible approach to rules. The C++ language forces a certain method of grouping rules that do not match well with how music notation works.

These problems have been addressed by integrating an interpreter for the Scheme programming language and rewriting parts of LilyPond in Scheme. The current formatting architecture is built around the notion of graphical objects, described by Scheme variables and functions. This architecture encompasses formatting rules, typographical style and individual formatting decisions. The user has direct access to most of these controls.

Scheme variables control layout decisions. For example, many graphical objects have a direction variable that encodes the choice between up and down (or left and right). Here you see two chords, with accents and arpeggio. In the first chord, the graphical objects have all directions down (or left). The second chord has all directions up (right).

The process of formatting a score consists of reading and writing the variables of graphical objects. Some variables have a preset value. For example, the thickness of many lines – a characteristic of typographical style – is a variable with a preset value. You are free to alter this value, giving your score a different typographical impression.

Formatting rules are also preset variables: each object has variables containing procedures. These procedures perform the actual formatting, and by substituting different ones, we can change the appearance of objects. In the following example, the rule which note head objects use to produce their symbol is changed during the music fragment.

1.3 What symbols to engrave?

The formatting process decides where to place symbols. However, this can only be done once it is decided what symbols should be printed, in other words what notation to use.

Common music notation is a system of recording music that has evolved over the past 1000 years. The form that is now in common use dates from the early renaissance. Although the basic form (i.e., note heads on a 5-line staff) has not changed, the details still change to express the innovations of contemporary notation. Hence, it encompasses some 500 years of music. Its applications range from monophonic melodies to monstrous counterpoint for large orchestras.

How can we get a grip on such a many-headed beast, and force it into the confines of a computer program? Our solution is break up the problem of notation (as opposed to engraving, i.e., typography) into digestible and programmable chunks: every type of symbol is handled by a separate module, a so-called plug-in. Each plug-in is completely modular and independent, so each can be developed and improved separately. Such plug-ins are called engraver, by analogy with craftsmen who translate musical ideas to graphic symbols.

In the following example, we see how we start out with a plug-in for note heads, the Note_heads_engraver.

Then a Staff_symbol_engraver adds the staff

the Clef_engraver defines a reference point for the staff

and the Stem_engraver adds stems.

The Stem_engraver is notified of any note head coming along. Every time one (or more, for a chord) note head is seen, a stem object is created and connected to the note head. By adding engravers for beams, slurs, accents, accidentals, bar lines, time signature, and key signature, we get a complete piece of notation.

This system works well for monophonic music, but what about polyphony? In polyphonic notation, many voices can share a staff.

In this situation, the accidentals and staff are shared, but the stems, slurs, beams, etc., are private to each voice. Hence, engravers should be grouped. The engravers for note heads, stems, slurs, etc., go into a group called `Voice context,' while the engravers for key, accidental, bar, etc., go into a group called `Staff context.' In the case of polyphony, a single Staff context contains more than one Voice context. Similarly, more Staff contexts can be put into a single Score context. The Score context is the top level notation context.

See also

Program reference: Contexts .

1.4 Music representation

Ideally, the input format for any high-level formatting system is an abstract description of the content. In this case, that would be the music itself. This poses a formidable problem: how can we define what music really is? Instead of trying to find an answer, we have reversed the question. We write a program capable of producing sheet music, and adjust the format to be as lean as possible. When the format can no longer be trimmed down, by definition we are left with content itself. Our program serves as a formal definition of a music document.

The syntax is also the user-interface for LilyPond, hence it is easy to type

     c'4 d'8

a quarter note C1 (middle C) and an eighth note D1 (D above middle C)

On a microscopic scale, such syntax is easy to use. On a larger scale, syntax also needs structure. How else can you enter complex pieces like symphonies and operas? The structure is formed by the concept of music expressions: by combining small fragments of music into larger ones, more complex music can be expressed. For example

     c4

Chords can be constructed with << and >> enclosing the notes

<<c4 d4 e4>>

This expression is put in sequence by enclosing it in curly braces { ... }

{ f4 <<c4 d4 e4>> }

The above is also an expression, and so it may be combined again with another simultaneous expression (a half note) using <<, \\, and >>

<< g2 \\ { f4 <<c4 d4 e4>> } >>

Such recursive structures can be specified neatly and formally in a context-free grammar. The parsing code is also generated from this grammar. In other words, the syntax of LilyPond is clearly and unambiguously defined.

User-interfaces and syntax are what people see and deal with most. They are partly a matter of taste, and also subject of much discussion. Although discussions on taste do have their merit, they are not very productive. In the larger picture of LilyPond, the importance of input syntax is small: inventing neat syntax is easy, while writing decent formatting code is much harder. This is also illustrated by the line-counts for the respective components: parsing and representation take up less than 10% of the source code.

1.5 Example applications

We have written LilyPond as an experiment of how to condense the art of music engraving into a computer program. Thanks to all that hard work, the program can now be used to perform useful tasks. The simplest application is printing notes.

By adding chord names and lyrics we obtain a lead sheet.

Polyphonic notation and piano music can also be printed. The following example combines some more exotic constructs.

The fragments shown above have all been written by hand, but that is not a requirement. Since the formatting engine is mostly automatic, it can serve as an output means for other programs that manipulate music. For example, it can also be used to convert databases of musical fragments to images for use on websites and multimedia presentations.

This manual also shows an application: the input format is text, and can therefore be easily embedded in other text-based formats such as LaTeX, HTML, or in the case of this manual, Texinfo. By means of a special program, the input fragments can be replaced by music images in the resulting PDF or HTML output files. This makes it easy to mix music and text in documents.

1.6 About this manual

The manual is divided into the following chapters:

• The Tutorial gives a gentle introduction to typesetting music. First time users should start here.
• The Example templates provides templates of LilyPond pieces. Just cut and paste a template into a file, add notes, and you're done!
• The Notation manual discusses topics grouped by notation construct. Once you master the basics, this is the place to look up details.
• The Changing defaults explains how to fine tune layout.
• The chapter Running LilyPond shows how to run LilyPond and its helper programs.
• The Integrating text and music explains the details behind creating documents with in-line music examples (like this manual).
• The chapter Converting from other formats explains how to run the conversion programs. These programs are supplied with the LilyPond package, and convert a variety of music formats to the .ly format. In addition, this section explains how to upgrade input files from previous versions of LilyPond.
• The Literature list contains a set of useful reference books for those who wish to know more on notation and engraving.

Once you are an experienced user, you can use the manual as reference: there is an extensive index¹, but the document is also available in a big HTML page which can be searched easily using the search facility of a web browser. If you are not familiar with music notation or music terminology (especially if you are a non-native English speaker), it is advisable to consult the glossary as well. The glossary explains musical terms, and includes translations to various languages. It is a separate document.

This manual is not complete without a number of other documents. They are not available in print, but should be included with the documentation package for your platform:

• Program reference (available here)

  The program reference is a set of heavily cross linked HTML pages, which document the nit-gritty details of each and every LilyPond class, object, and function. It is produced directly from the formatting definitions used.

  Almost all formatting functionality that is used internally, is available directly to the user. For example, all variables that control thickness values, distances, etc., can be changed in input files. There are a huge number of formatting options, and all of them are described in this document. Each section of the notation manual has a See also subsection, which refers to the the generated documentation. In the HTML document, these subsections have clickable links.

• Various input examples (available here) This collection of files shows various tips and tricks, and is available as a big HTML document, with pictures and explanatory texts included.
• The regression tests (available here)

  This collection of files tests each notation and engraving feature of LilyPond in one file. The collection is primarily there to help us debug problems, but it can be instructive to see how we exercise the program. The format is similar to the the tips and tricks document.

In all HTML documents that have music fragments embedded, the LilyPond input that was used to produce that image can be viewed by clicking the image.

The location of the documentation files that are mentioned here can vary from system to system. On occasion, this manual refers to initialization and example files. Throughout this manual, we refer to input files relative to the top-directory of the source archive. For example, input/test/bla.ly may refer to the file lilypond-2.3.14/input/test/bla.ly. On binary packages for the Unix platform, the documentation and examples can typically be found somewhere below /usr/share/doc/lilypond/. Initialization files, for example scm/lily.scm, or ly/engraver-init.ly, are usually found in the directory /usr/share/lilypond/.

Finally, this and all other manuals, are available online both as PDF files and HTML from the web site, which can be found at http://www.lilypond.org/.

2 Tutorial

This tutorial starts with a short introduction to the LilyPond music language. After this first contact we will show you how to produce printed output. Then you will be able to create and print your own sheets of music.

Many people learn programs by trying and fiddling around with the program. This is also possible with LilyPond. If you click on a picture in the HTML version of this manual, you will see the exact LilyPond input that was used to generate that image. Try it on this image

By cutting and pasting the full input into a test file, you have a starting template for experiments. If you like learning in this way, you will probably want to print out or bookmark the Cheat sheet, which is a table listing all commands for quick reference.

2.1 First steps

The first example demonstrates how to enter the most elementary piece of music, a scale. A note can be entered by typing its name, from `a' through `g'. So, if you enter

c d e f g a b

the result looks like this

The duration of a note is specified by a number after the note name. `1' for a whole note, `2' for a half note, `4' for a quarter note and so on

a1 a2 a4 a16 a32

If you do not specify a duration, the duration last entered is used for the next notes. The duration of the first note in input defaults to a quarter

a a8 a a2 a

Rests are entered just like notes, but with the name `r'

r2 r4 r8 r16

Add a dot `.' after the duration to get a dotted note

a2. a4 a8. a16

The meter (or time signature) can be set with the \time command

\time 3/4
\time 6/8
\time 4/4

The clef can be set using the \clef command

\clef treble
\clef bass
\clef alto
\clef tenor

Remember to enclose the notes and commands in curly braces { ... } to convert it to printable output.

For more elaborate information on

Entering pitches and durations

see Pitches, and Durations.

Clefs

see Clef.

Rests

see Rests.

Time signatures and other timing commands

see Time signature.

2.2 Running LilyPond for the first time

In the last section we explained what kind of things you could enter in a LilyPond file. In this section we will explain what commands to run and how to view or print the output. If you have not used LilyPond before, want to test your setup, or want to run an example file yourself, read this section. The instructions that follow are for Unix-like systems. Some additional instructions for Microsoft Windows are given at the end of this section.

Begin by opening a terminal window and starting a text editor. For example, you could open an xterm and execute joe.² In your text editor, enter the following input and save the file as test.ly

{ c'4 e' g' }

To process test.ly, proceed as follows

lilypond test.ly

You will see something resembling

lilypond test.ly
GNU LilyPond 2.5.0
Processing `test.ly'
Parsing...
Interpreting music... [1]
Preprocessing graphical objects...
Calculating line breaks... [2]
Layout output to `test.tex'...
Converting to `test.dvi'...
Converting to `test.ps'...
Converting to `test.pdf'...

The result is the file test.pdf³ which you can print or with the standard facilities of your operating system.⁴

On Windows, start up a text-editor⁵ and enter

{ c'4 e' g' }

Save it on the desktop as test.ly and make sure that it is not called test.ly.TXT. Double clicking test.ly will process the file and show the resulting PDF file.

2.3 More about pitches

A sharp (#) pitch is made by adding `is' to the name, a flat (b) pitch by adding `es'. As you might expect, a double sharp or double flat is made by adding `isis' or `eses'⁶

cis1 ees fisis aeses

The key signature is set with the command \key, followed by a pitch and \major or \minor

\key d \major
g1
\key c \minor
g

Key signatures together with the pitches (including alterations) are used to determine when to print accidentals. This is a feature that often causes confusion to newcomers, so let us explain it in more detail.

LilyPond makes a sharp distinction between musical content and layout. The alteration (flat, natural or sharp) of a note is part of the pitch, and is therefore musical content. Whether an accidental (a flat, natural or sharp sign) is printed in front of the corresponding note is a question of layout. Layout is something that follows rules, so accidentals are printed automatically according to those rules. The pitches in your music are works of art, so they will not be added automatically, and you must enter what you want to hear.

In this example

no note has an explicit accidental, but you still must enter

\key d \major
d cis fis

The code `d' does not mean `print a black dot just below the staff.' Rather, it means: `a note with pitch D-natural.' In the key of A-flat major, it does get an accidental

     \key as \major
     d

Adding all alterations explicitly might require a little more effort when typing, but the advantage is that transposing is easier, and accidentals can be printed according to different conventions. See Accidentals, for some examples how accidentals can be printed according to different rules.

For more information on

Accidentals

see Accidentals.

Key signature

see Key signature.

2.4 Entering ties

A tie is created by appending a tilde `~' to the first note being tied

     g4~ g a2~ a4

For more information on Ties see Ties.

2.5 Automatic and manual beams

Beams are drawn automatically

     a8 ais d es r d

If you do not like where beams are put, they can be entered by hand. Mark the first note to be beamed with `[' and the last one with `]'.

     a8[ ais] d[ es r d]

For more information on beams, see Beaming.

Here are key signatures, accidentals and ties in action

     \relative c'' {
       \time 4/4
       \key g \minor
       \clef treble
       r4 r8 a8 gis4 b
       a8 d4.~ d e,8
       fis4 fis8 fis8 eis4 a8 gis~
       gis2 r2
     }

There are some interesting points to note in this example. Bar lines and beams are drawn automatically. Line breaks are calculated automatically; it does not matter where the line breaks are in the source file. Finally, the order in which time, key and clef changes are entered is not relevant: in the printout, these are ordered according to standard notation conventions.

2.6 Octave entry

To raise a note by an octave, add a high quote ' (apostrophe) to the note name, to lower a note one octave, add a `low quote' , (a comma). Middle C is c'

     c'4 c'' c''' \clef bass c c,

An example of the use of quotes is in the following Mozart fragment

     \key a \major
     \time 6/8
     cis''8. d''16 cis''8 e''4 e''8
     b'8. cis''16 b'8 d''4 d''8

The last example shows that music in a high register needs lots of quotes. This makes the input less readable, and it is a source of errors. The solution is to use `relative octave' mode. This is the most convenient way to copy existing music.

In relative mode, a note without octavation quotes (i.e. the ' or , after a note) is chosen so it it is closest to the previous one. For example, `c f' goes up while `c g' goes down

To use relative mode, add \relative before the piece of music. The first note is taken relative to the middle C (i.e., c')

     \relative {
       c' f c g c
     }

Since most music has small intervals, pieces can be written almost without octavation quotes in relative mode. The previous example is entered as

     \relative {
       \key a \major
       \time 6/8
       cis'8. d16 cis8 e4 e8
       b8. cis16 b8 d4 d8
     }

Larger intervals are made by adding octavation quotes.

     \relative c {
       c'' f, f c' c g' c,
     }

In summary, quotes or commas no longer determine the absolute height of a note in \relative mode. Rather, the height of a note is relative to the previous one, and changing the octave of a single note shifts all following notes an octave up or down.

For more information on Relative octaves see Relative octaves, and Octave check.

2.7 Music expressions explained

In input files, music is represent by so-called music expression. We have already seen in the previous examples; a single note is a music expression

     a4

Enclosing group of notes in braces creates a new music expression

     { a4 g4 }

Putting a bunch of music expressions (notes) in braces, means that they should be played in sequence. The result again is a music expression, which can be grouped with other expressions sequentially. Here, the expression from the previous example is combined with two notes

     { { a4 g } f g }

This technique is useful for non-monophonic music. To enter music with more voices or more staves, we also combine expressions in parallel. Two voices that should play at the same time, are entered as a simultaneous combination of two sequences. A `simultaneous' music expression is formed by enclosing expressions in << and >>. In the following example, three sequences (all containing two other notes) are combined simultaneously

     <<
       { a4 g }
       { f e }
       { d b }
     >>

This mechanism is similar to mathematical formulas: a big formula is created by composing small formulas. Such formulas are called expressions, and their definition is recursive, so you can make arbitrarily complex and large expressions. For example,

1

1 + 2

(1 + 2) * 3

((1 + 2) * 3) / (4 * 5)

This is a sequence of expressions, where each expression is contained in the next one. The simplest expressions are numbers, and larger ones are made by combining expressions with operators (like `+', `*' and `/') and parentheses. Like mathematical expressions, music expressions can be nested arbitrarily deep, which is necessary for complex music like polyphonic scores.

Note that this example only has one staff, whereas the previous example had three seperate staves. That is because this example begins with a single note. To determine the number of staves, LilyPond looks at the first element. If it is a single note, there is one staff; if there is a simultaneous expression, there is more than one staff.

     {
       c <<c e>>
       << { e f } { c <<b d>> } >>
     }

Music files with deep nesting can be confusing to enter and maintain. One convention that helps against this confusion is indenting. When entering a file with deep nesting of braces and angles, it is customary to use an indent that indicates the nesting level. Formatting music like this eases reading and helps you insert the right number of closing braces at the end of an expression. For example,

<<
  {
    ...
  }
  {
    ...
  }
>>

Some editors have special support for entering LilyPond, and can help indenting source files. See Editor support for more information.

2.8 More staves

To print more than one staff, each piece of music that makes up a staff is marked by adding \new Staff before it. These Staff elements are then combined parallel with << and >>, as demonstrated here

     <<
       \new Staff { \clef treble c'' }
       \new Staff { \clef bass c }
     >>

The command \new introduces a `notation context.' A notation context is an environment in which musical events (like notes or \clef commands) are interpreted. For simple pieces, such notation contexts are created automatically. For more complex pieces, it is best to mark contexts explicitly. This ensures that each fragment gets its own stave.

There are several types of contexts. Staff, Voice and Score handle melodic notation, while Lyrics sets lyric texts and ChordNames prints chord names.

In terms of syntax, prepending \new to a music expression creates a bigger music expression. In this way it resembles the minus sign in mathematics. The formula (4+5) is an expression, so -(4+5) is a bigger expression.

We can now typeset a melody with two staves

     \relative <<
       \new Staff {
         \time 3/4
         \clef treble
     
         e'2 d4 c2 b4 a8[ a]
         b[ b] g[ g] a2.
       }
       \new Staff {
          \clef bass
          c,,2 e4 g2.
          f4 e d c2.
       }
     >>

For more information on context see the description in Interpretation contexts.

2.9 Adding articulation marks to notes

Common accents can be added to a note using a dash (`-') and a single character

     c-.  c-- c-> c-^ c-+ c-_

Similarly, fingering indications can be added to a note using a dash (`-') and the digit to be printed

     c-3 e-5 b-2 a-1

Articulations and fingerings are usually placed automatically, but you can specify a direction using `^' (up) or `_' (down). You can also use multiple articulations on the same note. In most cases, it is best to let LilyPond determine the articulation directions.

     c_-^1 d^. f^4_2-> e^-_+

Dynamic signs are made by adding the markings (with a backslash) to the note

     c\ff c\mf

Crescendi and decrescendi are started with the commands \< and \>. An ending dynamic, for example \f, will finish the crescendo, or the command \! can be used

     c2\< c2\ff\> c2 c2\!

A slur is a curve drawn across many notes, and indicates legato articulation. The starting note and ending note are marked with `(' and `)', respectively

     d4( c16) cis( d e c cis d) e( d4)

A slur looks like a tie, but it has a different meaning. A tie simply makes the first note sound longer, and can only be used on pairs of notes with the same pitch. Slurs indicate the articulations of notes, and can be used on larger groups of notes. Slurs and ties can be nested

Slurs to indicate phrasing can be entered with \( and \), so you can have both legato slurs and phrasing slurs at the same time.

     a8(\( ais b c) cis2 b'2 a4 cis, c\)

For more information on

Fingering

see Fingering instructions.

Articulations

see Articulations.

Slurs

see Slurs.

Phrasing slurs

see Phrasing slurs.

Dynamics

see Dynamics.

2.10 Combining notes into chords

Chords can be made by surrounding pitches with angle brackets. Angle brackets are the symbols `<' and `>'.

     r4 <c e g>4 <c f a>8

You can combine markings like beams and ties with chords. They must be placed outside the angled brackets

     r4 <c e g>8[ <c f a>]~ <c f a>

r4 <c e g>8\>( <c e g> <c e g> <c f a>\!)

2.11 Advanced rhythmic commands

A pickup is entered with the keyword \partial. It is followed by a duration: \partial 4 is a quarter note upstep and \partial 8 an eighth note

     \partial 8
     f8 c2 d e

Tuplets are made with the \times keyword. It takes two arguments: a fraction and a piece of music. The duration of the piece of music is multiplied by the fraction. Triplets make notes occupy 2/3 of their notated duration, so a triplet has 2/3 as its fraction

     \times 2/3 { f8 g a }
     \times 2/3 { c r c }

Grace notes are also made by prefixing a music expression with the keyword \appoggiatura or \acciaccatura

     c4 \appoggiatura b16 c4
     c4 \acciaccatura b16 c4

For more information on

Grace notes

see Grace notes,

Tuplets

see Tuplets,

Pickups

see Partial measures.

2.12 Commenting input files

A comment is a remark for the human reader of the music input; it is ignored while parsing, so it has no effect on the printed output. There are two types of comments. The percent symbol `%' introduces a line comment; after % the rest of the line is ignored. A block comments marks a whole section of music input. Anything that is enclosed in %{ and %} is ignored. The following fragment shows possible uses for comments

% notes for twinkle twinkle follow
  c4 c g' g a a g2

%{
    This line, and the notes below
    are ignored, since they are in a
    block comment.

    g g f f e e d d c2
%}

There is a special statement that is a kind of comment. The \version statement marks for which version of LilyPond the file was written. To mark a file for version 2.4.0, use

\version "2.4.0"

These annotations make future upgrades of LilyPond go more smoothly. Changes in the syntax are handled with a special program, convert-ly (see Invoking convert-ly), and it uses \version to determine what rules to apply.

2.13 Printing lyrics

Lyrics are entered by separating each syllable with a space

I want to break free

Consider the melody

     \relative {
       r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
       \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
     }

The lyrics can be set to these notes, combining both with the \addlyrics keyword

     <<
       \relative {
         r4 c \times 2/3 { f g g }
         \times 2/3 { g4( a2) }
       }
       \addlyrics { I want to break free }
     >>

This melody ends on a melisma, a single syllable (`free') sung to more than one note. This is indicated with an extender line. It is entered as two underscores, i.e.,

{ I want to break free __ }

Similarly, hyphens between words can be entered as two dashes, resulting in a centered hyphen between two syllables

Twin -- kle twin -- kle

More options, like putting multiple lines of lyrics below a melody are discussed in Vocal music.

2.14 A lead sheet

In popular music, it is common to denote accompaniment with chord names. Such chords can be entered like notes,

     \chordmode { c2 f4. g8 }

Now each pitch is read as the root of a chord instead of a note. This mode is switched on with \chordmode

Other chords can be created by adding modifiers after a colon. The following example shows a few common modifiers

     \chordmode { c2 f4:m g4:maj7 gis1:dim7 }

For lead sheets, chords are not printed on staves, but as names on a line of themselves. This is achieved by using \chords instead of \chordmode. This uses the same syntax as \chordmode, but renders the notes in a ChordNames context, with the following result.

     \chords { c2 f4.:m g4.:maj7 gis8:dim7 }

When put together, chord names, lyrics and a melody form a lead sheet, for example,

<<
  \chords { chords }
  the melody
  \addlyrics { the text }
>>
}

A complete list of modifiers and other options for layout can be found in Chords.

2.15 Adding titles

Bibliographic information is entered in a separate block, the \header block. The name of the piece, its composer, etc., are entered as an assignment, within \header { ... }. The \header block is usually put at the top of the file. For example,

\header {
  title = "Miniature"
  composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
}

{ ... }

When the file is processed the title and composer are printed above the music. More information on titling can be found in Creating titles.

2.16 Single staff polyphony

When different melodic lines are combined on a single staff they are printed as polyphonic voices; each voice has its own stems, slurs and beams, and the top voice has the stems up, while the bottom voice has them down.

Entering such parts is done by entering each voice as a sequence (with {...}), and combining those simultaneously, separating the voices with \\

     << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
        { r4 g4 f2 f4 } >>

For polyphonic music typesetting, spacer rests can also be convenient; these are rests that do not print. They are useful for filling up voices that temporarily do not play. Here is the same example with a spacer rest (s) instead of a normal rest (r),

     << { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
        { s4 g4 f2 f4 } >>

Again, these expressions can be nested arbitrarily

     <<
       \new Staff <<
         { a4 g2 f4~ f4 } \\
         { s4 g4 f2 f4 }
       >>
       \new Staff <<
         \clef bass
         { <c, g>1 ~ <c g>4 } \\
         { e,4 d e2 ~ e4}
       >>
     >>

More features of polyphonic typesetting in the notation manual are described in Polyphony.

2.17 Piano staves

Piano music is typeset in two staves connected by a brace. Printing such a staff is similar to the polyphonic example in More staves,

<< \new Staff { ... }
   \new Staff { ... } >>

but now this entire expression must be interpreted as a PianoStaff

\new PianoStaff << \new Staff ... >>

Here is a small example

     \new PianoStaff <<
       \new Staff { \time 2/4 c4 c g' g }
       \new Staff { \clef bass c,, c' e c }
     >>

More information on formatting piano music is in Piano music.

2.18 Organizing larger pieces

When all of the elements discussed earlier are combined to produce larger files, the \score blocks get a lot bigger, because the music expressions are longer, and, in the case of polyphonic pieces, more deeply nested. Such large expressions can become unwieldy.

By using variables, also known as identifiers, it is possible to break up complex music expressions. An identifier is assigned as follows

namedMusic = { ... }

The contents of the music expression namedMusic, can be used later by preceding the name with a backslash, i.e., \namedMusic. In the next example, a two-note motive is repeated two times by using variable substitution

     seufzer = {
       e'4( dis'4)
     }
     { \seufzer \seufzer }

The name of an identifier should have alphabetic characters only; no numbers, underscores or dashes. The assignment should be outside of running music.

It is possible to use variables for many other types of objects in the input. For example,

width = 4.5\cm
name = "Wendy"
aFivePaper = \paper { paperheight = 21.0 \cm }

Depending on its contents, the identifier can be used in different places. The following example uses the above variables

\paper {
  \aFivePaper
  linewidth = \width
}
{ c4^\name }

More information on the possible uses of identifiers is in the technical manual, in Input variables and Scheme.

2.19 An orchestral part

In orchestral music, all notes are printed twice. Once in a part for the musicians, and once in a full score for the conductor. Identifiers can be used to avoid double work. The music is entered once, and stored in a variable. The contents of that variable is then used to generate both the part and the score.

It is convenient to define the notes in a special file. For example, suppose that the file horn-music.ly contains the following part of a horn/bassoon duo

hornNotes = \relative c {
  \time 2/4
  r4 f8 a cis4 f e d
}

Then, an individual part is made by putting the following in a file

\include "horn-music.ly"
\header {
  instrument = "Horn in F"
}

{
 \transpose f c' \hornNotes
}

The line

\include "horn-music.ly"

substitutes the contents of horn-music.ly at this position in the file, so hornNotes is defined afterwards. The command \transpose f c' indicates that the argument, being \hornNotes, should be transposed by a fifth downwards. Sounding `f' is denoted by notated c', which corresponds with tuning of a normal French Horn in F. The transposition can be seen in the following output

In ensemble pieces, one of the voices often does not play for many measures. This is denoted by a special rest, the multi-measure rest. It is entered with a capital `R' followed by a duration (1 for a whole note, 2 for a half note, etc.). By multiplying the duration, longer rests can be constructed. For example, this rest takes 3 measures in 2/4 time

R2*3

When printing the part, multi-rests must be condensed. This is done by setting a run-time variable

\set Score.skipBars = ##t

This command sets the property skipBars in the Score context to true (##t). Prepending the rest and this option to the music above, leads to the following result

The score is made by combining all of the music together. Assuming that the other voice is in bassoonNotes in the file bassoon-music.ly, a score is made with

\include "bassoon-music.ly"
\include "horn-music.ly"

<<
  \new Staff \hornNotes
  \new Staff \bassoonNotes
>>

leading to

More in-depth information on preparing parts and scores can be found in the notation manual; see Orchestral music.

Setting run-time variables (`properties') is discussed in Changing context properties on the fly.

3 Example templates

This section of the manual contains templates with the LilyPond score already set up for you. Just add notes, run LilyPond, and enjoy beautiful printed scores!

3.1 Suggestions for writing LilyPond files

Now you're ready to begin writing bigger LilyPond files – not just the little examples in the tutorial, but whole pieces. But how should you go about doing it?

The best answer is “however you want to do it”. As long as LilyPond can understand your files and produces the output that you want, it doesn't matter what your files look like. That said, sometimes we make mistakes when writing files. If LilyPond can't understand your files, or produces output that you don't like, how do you fix the problem?

Here are a few suggestions that can help you in avoiding or fixing problems:

• Include \version numbers in every file. Note that all templates contain a \version "2.3.22" string. We highly recommend that you always include the \version, no matter how small your file is. Speaking from personal experience, it's quite frustrating to try to remember which version of LilyPond you were using a few years ago. convert-ly requires you to declare which version of LilyPond you used.
• Include checks: See Bar check and Octave check. If you include checks every so often, then if you make a mistake, you can pinpoint it quicker. How often is “every so often”? It depends on the complexity of the music. For very simple music, perhaps just once or twice. For very complex music, every bar.
• One bar per line. If there is anything complicated, either in the music itself or in the output you desire, it's often good to write only one bar per line. Saving screen space by cramming eight bars per line just isn't worth it if you have to `debug' your files.
• Comment your files, with either bar numbers (every so often) or references to musical themes (“second theme in violins”, “fourth variation”). You may not need it when you're writing the piece for the first time, but if you want to go back and change something two or three years later, you won't know how your file is structured if you don't comment the file.

3.2 Single staff

3.2.1 Notes only

The first example gives you a staff with notes, suitable for a solo instrument or a melodic fragment. Cut and paste this into a file, add notes, and you're finished!

     \version "2.3.22"
     melody = \relative c' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a4 b c d
     }
     
     \score {
        \new Staff \melody
        \layout { }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.2.2 Notes and lyrics

The next example demonstrates a simple melody with lyrics. Cut and paste, add notes, then words for the lyrics. This example turns off automatic beaming, which is common for vocal parts. If you want to use automatic beaming, you'll have to change or comment out the relevant line.

     \version "2.3.22"
     melody = \relative c' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a4 b c d
     }
     
     text = \lyricmode {
        Aaa Bee Cee Dee
     }
     
     \score{
        <<
           \context Voice = one {
              \autoBeamOff
              \melody
           }
           \lyricsto "one" \new Lyrics \text
        >>
        \layout { }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.2.3 Notes and chords

Want to prepare a lead sheet with a melody and chords? Look no further!

     \version "2.3.22"
     melody = \relative c' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        f4 e8[ c] d4 g |
        a2 ~ a2 |
     }
     
     harmonies = \chordmode {
        c4:m f:min7 g:maj c:aug d2:dim b:sus
     }
     
     \score {
        <<
           \context ChordNames {
              \set chordChanges = ##t
              \harmonies
           }
        \context Staff = one \melody
        >>
     
        \layout{ }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60}
     }

3.2.4 Notes, lyrics, and chords.

This template allows you to prepare a song with melody, words, and chords.

     \version "2.3.22"
     melody = \relative c' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a b c d
     }
     
     text = \lyricmode {
        Aaa Bee Cee Dee
     }
     
     harmonies = \chordmode {
        a2 c2
     }
     
     \score {
        <<
           \context ChordNames {
              \set chordChanges = ##t
              \harmonies
           }
        \context Voice = one {
           \autoBeamOff
           \melody
        }
        \lyricsto "one" \new Lyrics \text
        >>
        \layout { }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.3 Piano templates

3.3.1 Solo piano

Here is a simple piano staff.

     \version "2.3.22"
     upper = \relative c'' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a b c d
     }
     
     lower = \relative c {
        \clef bass
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a2 c
     }
     
     \score {
        \context PianoStaff <<
           \set PianoStaff.instrument = "Piano  "
           \context Staff = upper \upper
           \context Staff = lower \lower
        >>
        \layout { }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.3.2 Piano and melody with lyrics

Here is a typical song format: one staff with the melody and lyrics, with piano accompaniment underneath.

     \version "2.3.22"
     melody = \relative c'' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a b c d
     }
     
     text = \lyricmode {
        Aaa Bee Cee Dee
     }
     
     upper = \relative c'' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a b c d
     }
     
     lower = \relative c {
        \clef bass
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a2 c
     }
     
     \score {
        <<
           \context Voice = mel {
               \autoBeamOff
               \melody
           }
           \lyricsto mel \new Lyrics \text
     
           \context PianoStaff <<
              \context Staff = upper \upper
              \context Staff = lower \lower
           >>
        >>
        \layout {
           \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
        }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.3.3 Piano centered lyrics

Instead of having a full staff for the melody and lyrics, you can place the lyrics between the piano staff (and omit the separate melody staff).

     \version "2.3.22"
     upper = \relative c'' {
        \clef treble
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a b c d
     }
     
     lower = \relative c {
        \clef bass
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     
        a2 c
     }
     
     text = \lyricmode {
        Aaa Bee Cee Dee
     }
     
     \score {
       \context GrandStaff <<
         \context Staff = upper {
             \context Voice = singer \upper }
         \lyricsto "singer" \new Lyrics \text
         \context Staff = lower <<
           \clef bass
           \lower
         >>
       >>
       \layout {
         \context { \GrandStaff \accepts "Lyrics" }
         \context { \Lyrics \consists "Bar_engraver" }
       }
       \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.3.4 Piano centered dynamics

Many piano scores have the dynamics centered between the two staffs. This requires a bit of tweaking to implement, but since the template is right here, you don't have to do the tweaking yourself.

     \version "2.3.22"
     upper = \relative c'' {
       \clef treble
       \key c \major
       \time 4/4
     
       a b c d
     }
     
     lower = \relative c {
       \clef bass
       \key c \major
       \time 4/4
     
       a2 c
     }
     
     dynamics = {
       s2\fff\> s4
       s\!\pp
     }
     
     pedal = {
       s2\sustainDown s2\sustainUp
     }
     
     \score {
       \context PianoStaff <<
         \context Staff=upper \upper
         \context Dynamics=dynamics \dynamics
         \context Staff=lower <<
           \clef bass
           \lower
         >>
         \context Dynamics=pedal \pedal
       >>
       \layout {
         \context {
           \type "Engraver_group_engraver"
           \name Dynamics
           \alias Voice % So that \cresc works, for example.
           \consists "Output_property_engraver"
     
           minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-1 . 1)
           pedalSustainStrings = #'("Ped." "*Ped." "*")
           pedalUnaCordaStrings = #'("una corda" "" "tre corde")
     
           \consists "Piano_pedal_engraver"
           \consists "Script_engraver"
           \consists "Dynamic_engraver"
           \consists "Text_engraver"
     
           \override TextScript #'font-size = #2
           \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
           \override DynamicText #'extra-offset = #'(0 . 2.5)
           \override Hairpin #'extra-offset = #'(0 . 2.5)
     
           \consists "Skip_event_swallow_translator"
     
           \consists "Axis_group_engraver"
         }
         \context {
           \PianoStaff
           \accepts Dynamics
           \override VerticalAlignment #'forced-distance = #7
         }
       }
       \midi {
         \context {
           \type "Performer_group_performer"
           \name Dynamics
           \consists "Piano_pedal_performer"
           \consists "Span_dynamic_performer"
           \consists "Dynamic_performer"
         }
         \context {
           \PianoStaff
           \accepts Dynamics
         }
       }
     }

3.4 Small ensembles

3.4.1 String quartet

This template demonstrates a string quartet. It also uses a \global section for time and key signatures.

     \version "2.3.22"
     global = {
        \time 4/4
        \key c \major
     }
     
     violinOne = \relative c''{
        \set Staff.instrument = "Violin 1  "
        c2 d
        e1
     }
     
     violinTwo = \relative c''{
        \set Staff.instrument = "Violin 2  "
        g2 g
        g1
     }
     
     viola = \relative c'{
        \set Staff.instrument = "Viola  "
        \clef alto
        e2 d
        c1
     }
     
     cello = \relative c'{
        \set Staff.instrument = "Cello  "
        \clef bass
        c2 g
        c,1
     }
     
     \score {
        \new StaffGroup <<
           \new Staff << \global \violinOne >>
           \new Staff << \global \violinTwo >>
           \new Staff << \global \viola >>
           \new Staff << \global \cello >>
        >>
        \layout { }
        \midi { \tempo 4=60}
     }

3.5 Vocal ensembles

3.5.1 SATB vocal score

Here is a standard four-part SATB vocal score. With larger ensembles, it's often useful to include a section which is included in all parts. For example, the time signature and key signatures are almost always the same for all parts.

     \version "2.3.22"
     global = {
        \key c \major
        \time 4/4
     }
     
     sopMusic = \relative c'' {
        c4 c c8[( b)] c4
     }
     sopWords = \lyricmode {
        hi hi hi hi
     }
     
     altoMusic = \relative c' {
        e4 f d e
     }
     altoWords =\lyricmode {
        ha ha ha ha
     }
     
     tenorMusic = \relative c' {
        g4 a f g
     }
     tenorWords = \lyricmode {
        hu hu hu hu
     }
     
     bassMusic = \relative c {
        c4 c g c
     }
     bassWords = \lyricmode {
        ho ho ho ho
     }
     
     \score {
        \context ChoirStaff <<
           \context Lyrics = sopranos { s1 }
           \context Staff = women <<
              \context Voice =
                sopranos { \voiceOne << \global \sopMusic >> }
              \context Voice =
                altos { \voiceTwo << \global \altoMusic >> }
           >>
           \context Lyrics = altos { s1 }
           \context Lyrics = tenors { s1 }
           \context Staff = men <<
              \clef bass
              \context Voice =
                tenors { \voiceOne <<\global \tenorMusic >> }
              \context Voice =
                basses { \voiceTwo <<\global \bassMusic >> }
           >>
           \context Lyrics = basses { s1 }
           \context Lyrics = sopranos \lyricsto sopranos \sopWords
           \context Lyrics = altos \lyricsto altos \altoWords
           \context Lyrics = tenors \lyricsto tenors \tenorWords
           \context Lyrics = basses \lyricsto basses \bassWords
        >>
     
        \layout {
           \context {
              % a little smaller so lyrics
              % can be closer to the staff
              \Staff minimumVerticalExtent = #'(-3 . 3)
           }
        }
     }

3.6 Ancient notation templates

3.6.1 Transcription of mensural music

When transcribing mensural music, an incipit at the beginning of the piece is useful to indicate the original key and tempo. While today musicians are used to bar lines in order to faster recognize rhythmic patterns, bar lines where not yet invented during the period of mensural music; in fact, the meter often changed after every few notes. As a compromise, bar lines are often printed between the staves rather than on the staves.

     \version "2.3.22"
     
     global = {
       % incipit
       \once \override Score.SystemStartBracket #'transparent = ##t
       \key f \major
       \time 2/2
       \once \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
       \override Voice.NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
       \override Voice.Rest #'style = #'neomensural
       \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
       \cadenzaOn % turn off bar lines
       \skip 1*10
       \once \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##f
       \bar "||"
       \skip 1*1 % need this extra \skip such that clef change comes
                 % after bar line
       \bar ""
     
       % main
       \cadenzaOff % turn bar lines on again
       \once \override Staff.Clef #'full-size-change = ##t
       \set Staff.forceClef = ##t
       \key g \major
       \time 4/4
       \override Voice.NoteHead #'style = #'default
       \override Voice.Rest #'style = #'default
     
       % FIXME: setting printKeyCancellation back to #t must not
       % occur in the first bar after the incipit.  Dto. for forceClef.
       % Therefore, we need an extra \skip.
       \skip 1*1
       \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##t
       \set Staff.forceClef = ##f
     
       \skip 1*5
     
       % last bar contains a brevis (i.e., spans 2 bars);
       % therefore do not draw this particular bar
       \cadenzaOn
       \skip 1*2
       \cadenzaOff
     
       % let finis bar go through all staves
       \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##f
     
       % finis bar
       \bar "|."
     }
     
     discantusNotes = {
       \transpose c' c'' {
         \set Staff.instrument = "Discantus  "
     
         % incipit
         \clef "neomensural-c1"
         c'1. s2   % two bars
         \skip 1*8 % eight bars
         \skip 1*1 % one bar
     
         % main
         \clef "treble"
         d'2. d'4 |
         b e' d'2 |
         c'4 e'4.( d'8 c' b |
         a4) b a2 |
         b4.( c'8 d'4) c'4 |
         \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t c'1 |
         b\breve |
       }
     }
     
     discantusLyrics = \lyricmode {
       % incipit
       IV-
     
       % main
       Ju -- bi -- |
       la -- te De -- |
       o, om --
       nis ter -- |
       ra, __ om- |
       "..." |
       -us. |
     }
     
     altusNotes = {
       \transpose c' c'' {
         \set Staff.instrument = "Altus  "
     
         % incipit
         \clef "neomensural-c3"
         r1        % one bar
         f1. s2    % two bars
         \skip 1*7 % seven bars
         \skip 1*1 % one bar
     
         % main
         \clef "treble"
         r2 g2. e4 fis g | % two bars
         a2 g4 e |
         fis g4.( fis16 e fis4) |
         g1 |
         \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t g1 |
         g\breve |
       }
     }
     
     altusLyrics = \lyricmode {
       % incipit
       IV-
     
       % main
       Ju -- bi -- la -- te | % two bars
       De -- o, om -- |
       nis ter -- ra, |
       "..." |
       -us. |
     }
     
     tenorNotes = {
       \transpose c' c' {
         \set Staff.instrument = "Tenor  "
     
         % incipit
         \clef "neomensural-c4"
         r\longa   % four bars
         r\breve   % two bars
         r1        % one bar
         c'1. s2   % two bars
         \skip 1*1 % one bar
         \skip 1*1 % one bar
     
         % main
         \clef "treble_8"
         R1 |
         R1 |
         R1 |
         r2 d'2. d'4 b e' | % two bars
         \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t e'1 |
         d'\breve |
       }
     }
     
     tenorLyrics = \lyricmode {
       % incipit
       IV-
     
       % main
       Ju -- bi -- la -- te | % two bars
       "..." |
       -us. |
     }
     
     bassusNotes = {
       \transpose c' c' {
         \set Staff.instrument = "Bassus  "
     
         % incipit
         \clef "bass"
         r\maxima  % eight bars
         f1. s2    % two bars
         \skip 1*1 % one bar
     
         % main
         \clef "bass"
         R1 |
         R1 |
         R1 |
         R1 |
         g2. e4 |
         \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t e1 |
         g\breve |
       }
     }
     
     bassusLyrics = \lyricmode {
       % incipit
       IV-
     
       % main
       Ju -- bi- |
       "..." |
       -us. |
     }
     
     \score {
       \context StaffGroup = choirStaff <<
         \context Voice =
           discantusNotes << \global \discantusNotes >>
         \context Lyrics =
           discantusLyrics \lyricsto discantusNotes { \discantusLyrics }
         \context Voice =
           altusNotes << \global \altusNotes >>
         \context Lyrics =
           altusLyrics \lyricsto altusNotes { \altusLyrics }
         \context Voice =
           tenorNotes << \global \tenorNotes >>
         \context Lyrics =
           tenorLyrics \lyricsto tenorNotes { \tenorLyrics }
         \context Voice =
           bassusNotes << \global \bassusNotes >>
         \context Lyrics =
           bassusLyrics \lyricsto bassusNotes { \bassusLyrics }
       >>
       \layout {
         \context {
           \Score
           \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
           \remove "System_start_delimiter_engraver"
         }
         \context {
           \Voice
           \override Slur #'transparent = ##t
         }
       }
     }

3.7 Jazz combo

This is a much more complicated template, for a jazz ensemble. Note that all instruments are notated \key c \major. This refers to the key in concert pitch; LilyPond will automatically transpose the key if the music is within a \transpose section.

     \version "2.3.22"
     \header {
       title = "Song"
       subtitle = "(tune)"
       composer = "Me"
       meter = "moderato"
       piece = "Swing"
       tagline = "LilyPond example file by Amelie Zapf,
                  Berlin 07/07/2003"
       texidoc = "Jazz tune for combo
                  (horns, guitar, piano, bass, drums)."
     }
     
     #(set-global-staff-size 16)
     \include "english.ly"
     
     %%%%%%%%%%%% Some macros %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     
     sl = {
       \override NoteHead #'style = #'slash
       \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
     }
     nsl = {
       \revert NoteHead #'style
       \revert Stem #'transparent
     }
     cr = \override NoteHead #'style = #'cross
     ncr = \revert NoteHead #'style
     
     %% insert chord name style stuff here.
     
     jzchords = { }
     
     
     %%%%%%%%%%%% Keys'n'thangs %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     
     global = {
       \time 4/4
     }
     
     Key = { \key c \major }
     
     % ############ Horns ############
     
     % ------ Trumpet ------
     trpt = \transpose c d \relative c'' {
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     trpharmony = \transpose c' d {
       \jzchords
     }
     trumpet = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Trumpet"
       \clef treble
       \context Staff <<
         \trpt
       >>
     }
     
     % ------ Alto Saxophone ------
     alto = \transpose c a \relative c' {
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     altoharmony = \transpose c' a {
       \jzchords
     }
     altosax = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Alto Sax"
       \clef treble
       \context Staff <<
         \alto
       >>
     }
     
     % ------ Baritone Saxophone ------
     bari = \transpose c a' \relative c {
       \Key
       c1 c \sl d4^"Solo" d d d \nsl
     }
     bariharmony = \transpose c' a \chordmode {
       \jzchords s1 s d2:maj e:m7
     }
     barisax = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Bari Sax"
       \clef treble
       \context Staff <<
         \bari
       >>
     }
     
     % ------ Trombone ------
     tbone = \relative c {
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     tboneharmony = \chordmode {
       \jzchords
     }
     trombone = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Trombone"
       \clef bass
       \context Staff <<
         \tbone
       >>
     }
     
     % ############ Rhythm Section #############
     
     % ------ Guitar ------
     gtr = \relative c'' {
       \Key
       c1 \sl b4 b b b \nsl c1
     }
     gtrharmony = \chordmode {
       \jzchords
       s1 c2:min7+ d2:maj9
     }
     guitar = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Guitar"
       \clef treble
       \context Staff <<
         \gtr
       >>
     }
     
     %% ------ Piano ------
     rhUpper = \relative c'' {
       \voiceOne
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     rhLower = \relative c' {
       \voiceTwo
       \Key
       e1 e e
     }
     
     lhUpper = \relative c' {
       \voiceOne
       \Key
       g1 g g
     }
     lhLower = \relative c {
       \voiceTwo
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     
     PianoRH = {
       \clef treble
       \global
       \set Staff.midiInstrument = "acoustic grand"
       \context Staff <<
         \context Voice = one \rhUpper
         \context Voice = two \rhLower
       >>
     }
     PianoLH = {
       \clef bass
       \global
       \set Staff.midiInstrument = "acoustic grand"
       \context Staff <<
         \context Voice = one \lhUpper
         \context Voice = two \lhLower
       >>
     }
     
     piano = {
       \context PianoStaff <<
         \set PianoStaff.instrument = #"Piano"
         \context Staff = upper \PianoRH
         \context Staff = lower \PianoLH
       >>
     }
     
     % ------ Bass Guitar ------
     Bass = \relative c {
       \Key
       c1 c c
     }
     bass = {
       \global
       \set Staff.instrument = #"Bass"
       \clef bass
       \context Staff <<
         \Bass
       >>
     }
     
     % ------ Drums ------
     up = \drummode {
       hh4 <hh sn>4 hh <hh sn> hh <hh sn>4
       hh4 <hh sn>4
       hh4 <hh sn>4
       hh4 <hh sn>4
     }
     
     down = \drummode {
       bd4 s bd s bd s bd s bd s bd s
     }
     
     drumContents = {
       \global
       <<
         \set DrumStaff.instrument = #"Drums"
         \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
         \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
       >>
     }
     
     %%%%%%%%% It All Goes Together Here %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
     
     \score {
       <<
         \context StaffGroup = horns <<
           \context Staff = trumpet \trumpet
           \context Staff = altosax \altosax
           \context ChordNames = barichords \bariharmony
           \context Staff = barisax \barisax
           \context Staff = trombone \trombone
         >>
     
         \context StaffGroup = rhythm <<
           \context ChordNames = chords \gtrharmony
           \context Staff = guitar \guitar
           \context PianoStaff = piano \piano
           \context Staff = bass \bass
           \new DrumStaff { \drumContents }
         >>
       >>
     
       \layout {
         \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
         \context {
           \Score
           \override BarNumber #'padding = #3
           \override RehearsalMark #'padding = #2
           skipBars = ##t
         }
       }
     
       \midi { \tempo 4 = 75 }
     }

3.8 Other templates

3.8.1 All headers

This template displays all available headers. Some of them are only used in the Mutopia project; they don't affect the printed output at all. They are used if you want the piece to be listed with different information in the Mutopia database than you wish to have printed on the music. For example, Mutopia lists the composer of the famous D major violin concerto as TchaikovskyPI, whereas perhaps you wish to print "Petr Tchaikowski" on your music.

The `linewidth' is for \header.

     \version "2.3.22"
     \header {
       dedication = "dedication"
       title = "Title"
       subtitle = "Subtitle"
       subsubtitle = "Subsubtitle"
       composer = "Composer (xxxx-yyyy)"
       opus = "Opus 0"
       piece = "Piece I"
       instrument = "Instrument"
       arranger = "Arranger"
       poet = "Poet"
       texttranslator = "Translator"
       copyright = "public domain"
     
       % These are headers used by the Mutopia Project
       % http://www.mutopiaproject.org/
       mutopiatitle = ""
       mutopiacomposer = ""
       mutopiapoet = ""
       mutopiainstrument = ""
       date = "composer's dates"
       source = "urtext "
       maintainer = "your name here"
       maintainerEmail = "your email here"
       maintainerWeb = "your home page"
       lastupdated = "2004/Aug/26"
     }
     
     \score {
       \header {
         piece = "piece1"
         opus = "opus1"
       }
       { c'4 }
     }
     
     \score {
       \header {
         piece = "piece2"
         opus = "opus2"
       }
       { c'4 }
     }

3.8.2 Gregorian template

This example demonstrates how to do modern transcriptions of Gregorian music. Gregorian music has no measure, no stems; it uses only half and quarter notes, and two types of barlines, a short one indicating a rest, and a second one indicating a breath mark.

     barOne = { \once \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #2
       \bar "|" }
     barTwo = { \once \override Staff.BarLine #'extra-offset = #'(0 . 2)
       \once \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #2
       \bar "|" }
     chant = \relative c' {
       \set Score.timing = ##f
       \override Staff.Stem #'transparent = ##t
     
       f4 a2 \barTwo
       g4 a2 f2 \barOne
       g4( f) f( g) a2
     }
     \score {
       \chant
       \layout{ }
       \midi { \tempo 4=60 }
     }

3.8.3 Bagpipe music

Here is an example of bagpipe music. It demonstrates a big strength of LilyPond, compared to graphical score editors: in LilyPond, you can very easily reuse small segments of music without writing them out completely. This template defines a large number of small segments (taor, grip, thrd, etc), which can be reused easily.

TODO - replace Bagpipe template with Andrew McNabb's work?

     taor = { \grace { g32[ d' g e'] } }
     grip = { \grace { g32[ b g ]    } }
     thrd = { \grace { g32[ d' c']   } }
     birl = { \grace { g32[ a g]     } }
     gstd = { \grace { g'32[ d' g]   } }
     fgg  = { \grace { f32[ g'32]    } }
     dblb = { \grace { g'32[ b d']   } }
     dblc = { \grace { g'32[ c' d']  } }
     dble = { \grace { g'32[ e' f']  } }
     dblf = { \grace { g'32[ f' g']  } }
     dblg = { \grace { g'32[ f']     } }
     dbla = { \grace { a'32[ g']     } }
     lgg  = { \grace { g32  } }
     lag  = { \grace { a32  } }
     cg   = { \grace { c'32 } }
     eg   = { \grace { e'32 } }
     gg   = { \grace { g'32 } }
     dg   = { \grace { d'32 } }
     hag  = { \grace { a'32 } }
     gefg = { \grace { g'32[ e' f']  } }
     efg  = { \grace { e'32[ f']     } }
     gdcg = { \grace { g'32[ d' c']  } }
     gcdg = { \grace { g'32[ c' d']  } }
     
     \transpose a a' {
       #(add-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'length 6)
       \time 6/8 \partial 4
       \tieUp
       \slurUp
     
       f'4 |
       \gg f'4 e'8 \thrd d'4. |
       \eg a4.(a4) d'8 |
       \gg d'4 f'8 \dble e'4. ( | \noBreak
       e'8) d'4 \gg d'4 e'8 |
     
       \break
       \time 9/8
       \dblf f'2.( f'4) d'8 |
       \time 6/8
       \dblg g'4 a'8 \gg a'4. |
       \thrd d'4.( d'4) \eg a8 |
       \time 9/8
       \dble e'4 \lag e'8 \gg e'16[ d'8. e'8] \gg f'4 g'8 |
     
       \break
       \time 6/8
       \gg f'4 e'8 \thrd d'4. |
       \eg a4.( a4) d'8 |
       \dblg g'4 a'8 \gg a'4. |
       \thrd d'4.( d'4) f'8 |
     
       \break
       \dblg g'4 e'8( e'8) \dblf f'8.[ e'16] |
       \thrd d'4.( d'4) \cg d'8 |
       \gg c'4 e'8 \thrd d'4.( |
       d'4.) \gdcg d'4.
     }

3.9 Lilypond-book templates

These templates are for use with lilypond-book. If you're not familiar with this program, please refer to Integrating text and music.

3.9.1 LaTeX

You can include LilyPond fragments in a LaTeX document.

\documentclass[]{article}
\begin{document}

Normal LaTeX text.

\begin{lilypond}
\relative c'' {
a4 b c d
}
\end{lilypond}

More LaTeX text.

\begin{lilypond}
\relative c'' {
d4 c b a
}
\end{lilypond}
\end{document}

3.9.2 Texinfo

You can include LilyPond fragments in texinfo; in fact, this entire manual is written in texinfo.

\input texinfo
@node Top

Texinfo text

@lilypond[verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
a4 b c d
@end lilypond

More texinfo text

@lilypond[verbatim,fragment,raggedright]
d4 c b a
@end lilypond

@bye

4 Running LilyPond

This chapter details the technicalities of running LilyPond.

4.1 Invoking lilypond

The lilypond may be called as follows from the command line.

lilypond [option]... file...

When invoked with a filename that has no extension, the .ly extension is tried first. To read input from stdin, use a dash - for file.

When filename.ly is processed it will produce filename.tex as output (or filename.ps for PostScript output). If filename.ly contains more than one \score block, then the rest of the scores will be output in numbered files, starting with filename-1.tex. Several files can be specified; they will each be processed independently. ⁷

4.2 Command line options

The following options are supported:

-e,--evaluate=expr

Evaluate the Scheme expr before parsing any .ly files. Multiple -e options may be given, they will be evaluated sequentially. The function ly:set-option allows for access to some internal variables. Use -e '(ly:option-usage)' for more information.

-f,--format=format

A comma separated list of back-end output formats to use. Choices are tex (for TeX output, to be processed with LaTeX, and ps for PostScript.

There are other output options, but they are intended for developers.

-h,--help

Show a summary of usage.

--include, -I=directory

Add directory to the search path for input files.

-i,--init=file

Set init file to file (default: init.ly).

-o,--output=FILE

Set the default output file to FILE.

--ps

Generate PostScript.

--dvi

Generate DVI files. In this case, the TeX backend should be specified, i.e. -f tex.

--png

Generate pictures of each page, in PNG format. This implies --ps.

--pdf

Generate PDF. This implies --ps.

--preview

Generate an output file containing the titles and the first system

--no-pages

Do not generate the full pages. Useful in combination with --preview.

-s,--safe

Do not trust the .ly input.

When LilyPond formatting is available through a web server, the --safe MUST be passed. This will prevent inline Scheme code from wreaking havoc, for example

          
          #(system "rm -rf /")
          {
            c4^#(ly:export (ly:gulp-file "/etc/passwd"))
          }
     

The --safe option works by evaluating in-line Scheme expressions in a special safe module. This safe module is derived from GUILE safe-r5rs module, but adds a number of functions of the LilyPond API. These functions are listed in scm/safe-lily.scm.

In addition, --safe disallows \include directives and disables the use of backslashes in TeX strings.

In --safe mode, it is not possible to import LilyPond variables into Scheme.

--safe does not detect resource overuse. It is still possible to make the program hang indefinitely, for example by feeding cyclic data structures into the backend. Therefore, if using LilyPond on a publicly accessible webserver, the process should limited in both allowed CPU and memory usage.

-v,--version

Show version information.

-V,--verbose

Be verbose: show full paths of all files read, and give timing information.

-w,--warranty

Show the warranty with which GNU LilyPond comes. (It comes with NO WARRANTY!)

4.3 Environment variables

For processing both the TeX and the PostScript output, the appropriate environment variables must be set. The following scripts do this:

• buildscripts/out/lilypond-profile (for SH shells)
• buildscripts/out/lilypond-login (for C-shells)

They should normally be sourced as part of the login process. If these scripts are not run from the system wide login process, then you must run it yourself.

If you use sh, bash, or a similar shell, then add the following to your .profile:

. /the/path/to/lilypond-profile

If you use csh, tcsh or a similar shell, then add the following to your ~/.login:

source /the/path/to/lilypond-login

Of course, in both cases, you should substitute the proper location of either script.

These scripts set the following variables:

TEXMF

To make sure that TeX and lilypond find data files (among others .tex, .mf and .tfm), you have to set TEXMF to point to the lilypond data file tree. A typical setting would be

     {/usr/share/lilypond/1.6.0,{!!/usr/share/texmf}}

The binary itself recognizes the following environment variables:

LILYPONDPREFIX

This specifies a directory where locale messages and data files will be looked up by default. The directory should contain subdirectories called ly/, ps/, tex/, etc.

LANG

This selects the language for the warning messages.

4.4 Error messages

Different error messages can appear while compiling a file:

Warning

Something looks suspect. If you are requesting something out of the ordinary then you will understand the message, and can ignore it. However, warnings usually indicate that something is wrong with the input file.

Error

Something is definitely wrong. The current processing step (parsing, interpreting, or formatting) will be finished, but the next step will be skipped.

Fatal error

Something is definitely wrong, and LilyPond cannot continue. This happens rarely. The most usual cause is misinstalled fonts.

Scheme error

Errors that occur while executing Scheme code are caught by the Scheme interpreter. If running with the verbose option (-V or --verbose) then a call trace is printed of the offending function call.

Programming error

There was some internal inconsistency. These error messages are intended to help the programmers and debuggers. Usually, they can be ignored. Sometimes, they come in such big quantities that they obscure other output. In this case, file a bug-report.

Aborted (core dumped)

This signals a serious programming error that caused the program to crash. Such errors are considered critical. If you stumble on one, send a bugreport.

If warnings and errors can be linked to some part of the input file, then error messages have the following form

filename:lineno:columnno: message
offending input line

A line-break is inserted in offending line to indicate the column where the error was found. For example,

test.ly:2:19: error: not a duration: 5:
  { c'4 e'5
             g' }

These locations are LilyPond's best guess about where the warning or error occured, but (by their very nature) warning and errors occur when something unexpected happens. If you can't see an error in the indicated line of your input file, try checking one or two lines above the indicated position.

4.5 Reporting bugs

If you have input that results in a crash or an erroneous output, then that is a bug. We try respond to bug-reports promptly, and fix them as soon as possible. Help us by sending a defective input file, so we can reproduce the problem. Make it small, so we can easily debug the problem. Don't forget to tell which version of LilyPond you use! Send the report to bug-lilypond@gnu.org.

When you've found a bug, have a look at our bug database to see if it has already been reported. You could also try doing a few searches on the mailing list for the bug. Sometimes the bug will have already been reported and a fix or workaround is already known.

Here is an example of a good bug report:

It seems that placement of accidentals is broken.  In the
following example, the accidental touches the note head.

Using Mac OSX 10.3.5, fink package lilypond-unstable

\version "2.3.22"
\relative c''{
   a4 b cis d
}

4.6 Editor support

There is support from different editors for LilyPond.

Emacs

Emacs has a lilypond-mode, which provides keyword autocompletion, indentation, LilyPond specific parenthesis matching and syntax coloring, handy compile short-cuts and reading LilyPond manuals using Info. If lilypond-mode is not installed on your platform, then read the installation instructions.

VIM

For VIM, a vimrc is supplied, along with syntax coloring tools. For more information, refer to the installation instructions.

JEdit

The jEdit editor has a LilyPond plugin. This plugin includes a DVI viewer, integrated help and viewing via GhostScript. It can be installed by doing <Plugins > Plugin Manager>, and selecting LilyTool from the <Install> tab.

All these editors can be made to jump in the input file to the source of a symbol in the graphical output. See Point and click.

4.7 Invoking lilypond-latex

Before LilyPond 2.4, the lilypond program only generated music notation. Titles and page layout was done in a separate wrapper program. For compatibility with older files, this wrapper program has been retained as lilypond-latex. It uses the LilyPond program and LaTeX to create a nicely titled piece of sheet music. Use of this program is only necessary if the input file contains special LaTeX options or formatting codes in markup texts.

The lilypond-latex wrapper is invoked from the command-line as follows

lilypond-latex [option]... file...

To have lilypond-latex read from stdin, use a dash - for file. The program supports the following options.

-k,--keep

Keep the temporary directory with all output files. The temporary directory is created in the current directory as lilypond.dir.

-h,--help

Print usage help.

-I,--include=dir

Add dir to LilyPond's include path.

-o,--output=file

Generate output to file. The extension of file is ignored.

--png

Also generate pictures of each page, in PNG format.

--preview

Also generate a picture of the first system of the score.

-s,--set=key=val

Add key= val to the settings, overriding those specified in the files. Possible keys: language, latexheaders, latexpackages, latexoptions, papersize, linewidth, orientation, textheight.

-v,--version

Show version information.

-V,--verbose

Be verbose. This prints out commands as they are executed, and more information about the formatting process is printed.

--debug

Print even more information. This is useful when generating bug reports.

-w,--warranty

Show the warranty with which GNU LilyPond comes. (It comes with NO WARRANTY!)

4.7.1 Additional parameters

The lilypond program responds to several parameters specified in a \layout section of the input file. They can be overridden by supplying a --set command line option.

language

Specify LaTeX language: the babel package will be included. Default: unset.

Read from the \header block.

latexheaders

Specify additional LaTeX headers file. Normally read from the \header block. Default value: empty.

latexpackages

Specify additional LaTeX packages file. This works cumulative, so you can add multiple packages using multiple -s=latexpackages options. Normally read from the \header block. Default value: geometry.

latexoptions

Specify additional options for the LaTeX \documentclass. You can put any valid value here. This was designed to allow lilypond to produce output for double-sided paper, with balanced margins and page numbers on alternating sides. To achieve this specify twoside.

orientation

Set orientation. Choices are portrait or landscape. Is read from the \layout block, if set.

textheight

The vertical extension of the music on the page. It is normally calculated automatically, based on the paper size.

linewidth

The music line width. It is normally read from the \layout block.

papersize

The paper size (as a name, e.g. a4). It is normally read from the \layout block.

fontenc

The font encoding, should be set identical to the font-encoding property in the score.

5 Notation manual

This chapter describes all the different types of notation supported by LilyPond. It is intended as a reference for users that are already somewhat familiar with LilyPond.

5.1 Note entry

This section is about basic notation elements notes, rests and related constructs, such as stems, tuplets and ties.

5.1.1 Notes

A note is printed by specifying its pitch and then its duration,

     { cis'4 d'8 e'16 c'16 }

5.1.2 Pitches

The most common syntax for pitch entry is used for standard notes and \chordmode modes. In these modes, pitches may be designated by names. The notes are specified by the letters a through g. The octave is formed with notes ranging from c to b. The pitch c is an octave below middle C and the letters span the octave above that C

     \clef bass
     a,4 b, c d e f g a b c' d' e' \clef treble f' g' a' b' c''

A sharp is formed by adding -is to the end of a pitch name and a flat is formed by adding -es. Double sharps and double flats are obtained by adding -isis or -eses. These names are the Dutch note names. In Dutch, aes is contracted to as, but both forms are accepted. Similarly, both es and ees are accepted

     ceses4
     ces
     c
     cis
     cisis

There are predefined sets of note names for various other languages. To use them, include the language specific init file. For example: \include "english.ly". The available language files and the note names they define are

                        Note Names               sharp       flat
nederlands.ly  c   d   e   f   g   a   bes b   -is         -es
english.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   bf  b   -s/-sharp   -f/-flat
                                               -x (double)
deutsch.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -is         -es
norsk.ly       c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -iss/-is    -ess/-es
svenska.ly     c   d   e   f   g   a   b   h   -iss        -ess
italiano.ly    do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -d          -b
catalan.ly     do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -d/-s       -b
espanol.ly     do  re  mi  fa  sol la  sib si  -s          -b

The optional octave specification takes the form of a series of single quote (`'') characters or a series of comma (`,') characters. Each ' raises the pitch by one octave; each , lowers the pitch by an octave

     c' c'' es' g' as' gisis' ais'

Predefined commands

Notes can be hidden and unhidden with the following commands

\hideNotes, \unHideNotes.

See also

Program reference: NoteEvent , and NoteHead .

5.1.3 Chromatic alterations

Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also print them manually. A reminder accidental can be forced by adding an exclamation mark ! after the pitch. A cautionary accidental (i.e., an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the question mark `?' after the pitch.

     cis' cis' cis'! cis'?

See also

The automatic production of accidentals can be tuned in many ways. For more information, refer to Automatic accidentals.

5.1.4 Micro tones

Half-flats and half-sharps are formed by adding -eh and -ih; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches

     { ceseh ceh cih cisih }

Micro tones are also exported to the MIDI file

Bugs

There are no generally accepted standards for denoting three quarter flats, so LilyPond's symbol does not conform to any standard.

5.1.5 Chords

A chord is formed by a enclosing a set of pitches in < and >. A chord may be followed by a duration, and a set of articulations, just like simple notes

     <c e g>4 <c>8

5.1.6 Rests

Rests are entered like notes, with the note name r

     r1 r2 r4 r8

Whole bar rests, centered in middle of the bar, must be done with multi-measure rests. They are discussed in Multi measure rests.

A rest's vertical position may be explicitly specified by entering a note with the \rest keyword appended, the rest will be placed at the note's place. This makes manual formatting in polyphonic music easier. Automatic rest collision formatting will leave these rests alone

     a'4\rest d'4\rest

See also

Program reference: RestEvent , and Rest .

5.1.7 Skips

An invisible rest (also called a `skip') can be entered like a note with note name `s' or with \skip duration

     a4 a4 s4 a4 \skip 1 a4

The s syntax is only available in note mode and chord mode. In other situations, for example, when entering lyrics, you should use the \skip command

     <<
       \relative { a'2 a1 }
       \new Lyrics \lyricmode { \skip 2 bla1 }
     >>

The skip command is merely an empty musical placeholder. It does not produce any output, not even transparent output.

The s skip command does create Staff and Voice when necessary, similar to note and rest commands. For example, the following results in an empty staff.

     { s4 }

The fragment { \skip 4 } would produce an empty page.

See also

Program reference: SkipEvent , SkipMusic .

5.1.8 Durations

In Note, Chord, and Lyrics mode, durations are designated by numbers and dots: durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example, a quarter note is entered using a 4 (since it is a 1/4 note), while a half note is entered using a 2 (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes longer than a whole you must use the variables \longa and \breve

c'\breve
c'1 c'2 c'4 c'8 c'16 c'32 c'64 c'64
r\longa r\breve
r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r64

If the duration is omitted then it is set to the previously entered duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note.

     { a a a2 a a4 a a1 a }

5.1.9 Augmentation dots

To obtain dotted note lenghts, simply add a dot (`.') to the number. Double-dotted notes are produced in a similar way.

     a'4 b' c''4. b'8 a'4. b'4.. c''8.

Predefined commands

Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic situations. The following commands may be used to force a particular direction manually

\dotsUp, \dotsDown, \dotsNeutral.

See also

Program reference: Dots , and DotColumn .

5.1.10 Scaling durations

You can alter the length of duration by a fraction N/M appending `*N/M' (or `*N' if M=1). This will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced.

In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two beats, but no triplet bracket is printed.

     \time 2/4
     a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
     a4 a4 a4*2
     b16*4 c4

See also

This manual: Tuplets

5.1.11 Stems

Whenever a note is found, a Stem object is created automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but made invisible.

Predefined commands

\stemUp, \stemDown, \stemNeutral.

5.1.12 Ties

A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in effect extends the length of a note. Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate musical phrasing. A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `~'

     e' ~ e' <c' e' g'> ~ <c' e' g'>

When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created.

A tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar to the augmentation dot. The following example shows two ways of notating exactly the same concept

Ties are used either when the note crosses a bar line, or when dots cannot be used to denote the rhythm. When using ties, larger note values should be aligned to subdivisions of the measure, eg.

If you need to tie a lot of notes over bars, it may be easier to use automatic note splitting (see Automatic note splitting). This mechanism automatically splits long notes, and ties them across bar lines.

Predefined commands

\tieUp, \tieDown, \tieNeutral, \tieDotted, \tieSolid.

See also

In this manual: Automatic note splitting.

Program reference: TieEvent , Tie .

Bugs

Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.

Formatting of ties is a difficult subject. The results are often not optimal.

5.1.13 Tuplets

Tuplets are made out of a music expression by multiplying all durations with a fraction

\times fraction musicexpr

The duration of musicexpr will be multiplied by the fraction. The fraction's denominator will be printed over the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3 notes have the length of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written length

     g'4 \times 2/3 {c'4 c' c'} d'4 d'4

The property tupletSpannerDuration specifies how long each bracket should last. With this, you can make lots of tuplets while typing \times only once, thus saving lots of typing. In the next example, there are two triplets shown, while \times was only used once

     \set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
     \times 2/3 { c'8 c c c c c }

The format of the number is determined by the property tupletNumberFormatFunction. The default prints only the denominator, but if it is set to the Scheme function fraction-tuplet-formatter, num:den will be printed instead.

Predefined commands

\tupletUp, \tupletDown, \tupletNeutral.

See also

User manual: Changing context properties on the fly for the \set command.

Program reference: TupletBracket , and TimeScaledMusic .

Examples: input/regression/tuplet-nest.ly.

Bugs

Nested tuplets are not formatted automatically. In this case, outer tuplet brackets should be moved manually, which is demonstrated in input/regression/tuplet-nest.ly.

5.2 Easier music entry

This section deals with tricks and features of the input language that were added solely to help entering music and finding and correcting mistakes. There are also external tools that make debugging easier. See Point and click for more information.

It is also possible to enter and edit music using other programs, such as GUI interfaces or MIDI sequencers. Refer to the LilyPond website for more information.

5.2.1 Relative octaves

Octaves are specified by adding ' and , to pitch names. When you copy existing music, it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in the wrong octave and hard to find such an error. The relative octave mode prevents these errors by making the mistakes much larger: a single error puts the rest of the piece off by one octave

\relative startpitch musicexpr

or

\relative musicexpr

The octave of notes that appear in musicexpr are calculated as follows: if no octave changing marks are used, the basic interval between this and the last note is always taken to be a fourth or less. This distance is determined without regarding alterations; a fisis following a ceses will be put above the ceses. In other words, a doubly-augmented fourth is considered a smaller interval than a diminshed fifth, even though the fourth is seven semitones while the fifth is only six semitones.

The octave changing marks ' and , can be added to raise or lower the pitch by an extra octave. Upon entering relative mode, an absolute starting pitch can be specified that will act as the predecessor of the first note of musicexpr. If no starting pitch is specified, then middle C is used as a start.

Here is the relative mode shown in action

     \relative c'' {
       b c d c b c bes a
     }

Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth

     \relative c'' {
       c g c f, c' a, e''
     }

If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used to determine the first note of the next chord

     \relative c' {
       c <c e g>
       <c' e g>
       <c, e' g>
     }

The pitch after the \relative contains a note name.

The relative conversion will not affect \transpose, \chordmode or \relative sections in its argument. To use relative within transposed music, an additional \relative must be placed inside \transpose.

5.2.2 Octave check

Octave checks make octave errors easier to correct: a note may be followed by =quotes which indicates what its absolute octave should be. In the following example,

\relative c'' { c='' b=' d,='' }

the d will generate a warning, because a d'' is expected (because b' to d'' is only a third), but a d' is found. In the output, the octave is corrected to be a d'' and the next note is calculated relative to d'' instead of d'.

There is also a syntax that is separate from the notes. The syntax

\octave pitch

This checks that pitch (without quotes) yields pitch (with quotes) in \relative mode. If not, a warning is printed, and the octave is corrected.

In the example below, the first check passes without incident, since the e (in relative mode) is within a fifth of a'. However, the second check produces a warning, since the e is not within a fifth of b'. The warning message is printed, and the octave is adjusted so that the following notes are in the correct octave once again.

\relative c' {
  e
  \octave a'
  \octave b'
}

The octave of a note following an octave check is determined with respect to the note preceding it. In the next fragment, the last note is a a', above middle C. That means that the \octave check passes successfully, so the check could be deleted without changing the output of the piece.

     \relative c' {
       e
       \octave b
       a
     }

5.2.3 Bar check

Bar checks help detect errors in the durations. A bar check is entered using the bar symbol, `|'. Whenever it is encountered during interpretation, it should fall on a measure boundary. If it does not, a warning is printed. In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error

\time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |

Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example

\lyricmode {
  \time 2/4
  Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle
}

Failed bar checks are caused by entering incorrect durations. Incorrect durations often completely garble up the score, especially if the score is polyphonic, so a good place to start correcting input is by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations. To speed up this process, the skipTypesetting feature may be used. It is described in the next section.

It is also possible to redefine the meaning of |. This is done by assigning a music expression to pipeSymbol,

     pipeSymbol = \bar "||"
     
     { c'2 c' | c'2 c }

5.2.4 Skipping corrected music

The property Score.skipTypesetting can be used to switch on and off typesetting completely during the interpretation phase. When typesetting is switched off, the music is processed much more quickly. This can be used to skip over the parts of a score that have already been checked for errors

     \relative c'' {
       c8 d
       \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
       e e e e e e e e
       \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
       c d b bes a g c2 }

In polyphonic music, Score.skipTypesetting will affect all voices and staves, saving even more time.

5.2.5 Automatic note splitting

Long notes can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done by replacing the Note_heads_engraver by the Completion_heads_engraver . In the following examples, notes crossing the bar line are split and tied.

     \new Voice \with {
       \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
       \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
     } {
       c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2
     }

This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are not entirely filled, then the ties exactly show how much each measure is off.

Bugs

Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be represented exactly with normal notes and dots, but the engraver will not insert tuplets.

See also

Examples: input/regression/completion-heads.ly.

Program reference: Completion_heads_engraver .

5.3 Staff notation

This section describes music notation that occurs on staff level, such as key signatures, clefs and time signatures.

5.3.1 Staff symbol

Notes, dynamic signs, etc., are grouped with a set of horizontal lines, into a staff (plural `staves'). In our system, these lines are drawn using a separate layout object called staff symbol.

See also

Program reference: StaffSymbol .

Examples: input/test/staff-lines.ly, input/test/staff-size.ly.

Bugs

If a staff is ended halfway a piece, the staff symbol may not end exactly on the bar line.

5.3.2 Key signature

The key signature indicates the tonality in which a piece is played. It is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the staff.

Setting or changing the key signature is done with the \key command

\key pitch type

Here, type should be \major or \minor to get pitch-major or pitch-minor, respectively. The standard mode names \ionian, \locrian, \aeolian, \mixolydian, \lydian, \phrygian, and \dorian are also defined.

This command sets the context property Staff .keySignature. Non-standard key signatures can be specified by setting this property directly.

Accidentals and key signatures often confuse new users, because unaltered notes get natural signs depending on the key signature. For more information, see More about pitches.

See also

Program reference: KeyChangeEvent , KeyCancellation and KeySignature .

5.3.3 Clef

The clef indicates which lines of the staff correspond to which pitches.

The clef can be set with the \clef command

     { c''2 \clef alto g'2 }

Supported clef-names include

treble, violin, G, G2

G clef on 2nd line

alto, C

C clef on 3rd line

tenor

C clef on 4th line.

bass, F

F clef on 4th line

french

G clef on 1st line, so-called French violin clef

soprano

C clef on 1st line

mezzosoprano

C clef on 2nd line

baritone

C clef on 5th line

varbaritone

F clef on 3rd line

subbass

F clef on 5th line

percussion

percussion clef

tab

tablature clef

By adding _8 or ^8 to the clef name, the clef is transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and _15 and ^15 transposes by two octaves. The argument clefname must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits. For example,

     \clef "G_8" c4

This command is equivalent to setting clefGlyph, clefPosition (which controls the Y position of the clef), centralCPosition and clefOctavation. A clef is printed when any of these properties are changed. The following example shows possibilities when setting properties manually.

     {
       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs-F"
       \set Staff.clefPosition = #2
       c'4
       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs-G"
       c'4
       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs-C"
       c'4
       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #7
       c'4
       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0
       \set Staff.clefPosition = #0
       c'4
       \clef "bass"
       c'4
     }

See also

Program reference: Clef .

5.3.4 Ottava brackets

`Ottava' brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for the staff. They are created by invoking the function set-octavation

     \relative c''' {
       a2 b
       #(set-octavation 1)
       a b
       #(set-octavation 0)
       a b
     }

The set-octavation function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa) and 2 (for 15ma) as arguments. Internally the function sets the properties ottavation (e.g., to "8va") and centralCPosition. For overriding the text of the bracket, set ottavation after invoking set-octavation, i.e.,

     {
       #(set-octavation 1)
       \set Staff.ottavation = #"8"
       c'''
     }

See also

Program reference: OttavaBracket .

Examples: input/regression/ottava.ly, input/regression/ottava-broken.ly.

Bugs

set-octavation will get confused when clef changes happen during an octavation bracket.

5.3.5 Time signature

Time signature indicates the metrum of a piece: a regular pattern of strong and weak beats. It is denoted by a fraction at the start of the staff.

The time signature is set or changed by the \time command

     \time 2/4 c'2 \time 3/4 c'2.

The symbol that is printed can be customized with the style property. Setting it to #'() uses fraction style for 4/4 and 2/2 time,

     \time 4/4 c'1
     \time 2/2 c'1
     \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'()
     \time 4/4 c'1
     \time 2/2 c'1

There are many more options for its layout. See Ancient time signatures for more examples.

This command sets the property timeSignatureFraction, beatLength and measureLength in the Timing context, which is normally aliased to Score . The property measureLength determines where bar lines should be inserted, and how automatic beams should be generated. Changing the value of timeSignatureFraction also causes the symbol to be printed.

More options are available through the Scheme function set-time-signature. In combination with the Measure_grouping_engraver , it will create MeasureGrouping signs. Such signs ease reading rhythmically complex modern music. In the following example, the 9/8 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to set-time-signature as the third argument (2 2 2 3)

     \score {
       \relative c'' {
         #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
         g8[ g] d[ d] g[ g] a8[( bes g]) |
         #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
         a4. g4
       }
       \layout {
         \context {
           \Staff
           \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
         }
       }
     }

See also

Program reference: TimeSignature , and Timing_engraver .

Bugs

Automatic beaming does not use the measure grouping specified with set-time-signature.

5.3.6 Partial measures

Partial measures, for example in upsteps, are entered using the \partial command

     \partial 16*5 c16 cis d dis e | a2. c,4 | b2

The syntax for this command is

\partial duration

This is internally translated into

\set Timing.measurePosition = -length of duration

The property measurePosition contains a rational number indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point.

Bugs

This command does not take into account grace notes at the start of the music. When a piece starts with graces notes in the pickup, then the \partial should follow the grace notes

     {
       \grace f16
       \partial 4
       g4
       a2 g2
     }

5.3.7 Unmetered music

Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered music (cadenzas, for example), this is not desirable. By setting Score.timing to false, this automatic timing can be switched off. Empty bar lines,

\bar ""

indicate where line breaks can occur.

Predefined commands

\cadenzaOn, \cadenzaOff.

5.3.8 Bar lines

Bar lines delimit measures, but are also used to indicate repeats. Normally, they are inserted automatically. Line breaks may only happen on bar lines.

Special types of bar lines can be forced with the \bar command

     c4 \bar "|:" c4

The following bar types are available

For allowing line breaks, there is a special command,

\bar ""

This will insert an invisible bar line, and allow line breaks at this point.

In scores with many staves, a \bar command in one staff is automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are connected between different staves of a StaffGroup

     <<
       \context StaffGroup <<
         \new Staff {
           e'4 d'
           \bar "||"
           f' e'
         }
         \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g }
       >>
       \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 }
     >>

The command \bar bartype is a short cut for doing \set Timing.whichBar = bartype. Whenever whichBar is set to a string, a bar line of that type is created.

A bar line is created whenever the whichBar property is set. At the start of a measure it is set to the contents of Timing.defaultBarType. The contents of repeatCommands are used to override default measure bars.

You are encouraged to use \repeat for repetitions. See Repeats.

See also

In this manual: Repeats, System start delimiters.

Program reference: BarLine (created at Staff level), SpanBar (across staves).

Examples: input/test/bar-lines.ly,

5.3.9 Time administration

Time is administered by the Time_signature_engraver , which usually lives in the Score context. The bookkeeping deals with the following variables

currentBarNumber

The measure number.

measureLength

The length of the measures in the current time signature. For a 4/4 time this is 1, and for 6/8 it is 3/4.

measurePosition

The point within the measure where we currently are. This quantity is reset to 0 whenever it exceeds measureLength. When that happens, currentBarNumber is incremented.

timing

If set to true, the above variables are updated for every time step. When set to false, the engraver stays in the current measure indefinitely.

Timing can be changed by setting any of these variables explicitly. In the next example, the 4/4 time signature is printed, but measureLength is set to 5/4. After a while, the measure is shortened by 1/8, by setting measurePosition to -3/8 at 2/4 in the measure, so the next bar line will fall at 2/4 + 3/8.

     \set Score.measureLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 4)
     c1 c4
     c1 c4
     c4 c4
     \set Score.measurePosition = #(ly:make-moment -3 8)
     b8 b b
     c4 c1

5.3.10 Controlling formatting of prefatory matter

TODO: Somebody needs to explain this example, but I don't know what they're trying to do, so it won't be me. -gp

     \transpose c c' {
       \override Staff.Clef
         #'break-visibility = #end-of-line-visible
       \override Staff.KeySignature
         #'break-visibility = #end-of-line-visible
       \set Staff.explicitClefVisibility = #end-of-line-visible
       \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #end-of-line-visible
     
       % We want the time sig to take space, otherwise there is not
       % enough white at the start of the line.
     
       \override Staff.TimeSignature #'transparent = ##t
       \set Score.defaultBarType = #"empty"
     
       c1 d e f g a b c
       \key d \major
       \break
     
       % see above.
       \time 4/4
     
       d e fis g a b cis d
       \key g \major
       \break
       \time 4/4
     }

5.4 Polyphony

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occuring in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more than one voice on the same staff.

5.4.1 Writing polyphonic music

The easiest way to enter fragments with more than one voice on a staff is to split chords using the separator \\. You can use it for small, short-lived voices or for single chords

     \context Staff \relative c'' {
       c4 << { f d e } \\ { b c2 } >>
       c4 << g' \\ b, \\ f' \\ d >>
     }

The separator causes Voice contexts⁸ to be instantiated. They bear the names "1", "2", etc. In each of these contexts, vertical direction of slurs, stems, etc., is set appropriately.

This can also be done by instantiating Voice contexts by hand, and using \voiceOne, up to \voiceFour to assign a stem directions and horizontal shift for each part

     \relative c''
     \context Staff <<
       \new Voice { \voiceOne cis2 b }
       \new Voice { \voiceThree b4 ais ~ ais4 gis4 }
       \new Voice { \voiceTwo fis4~ fis4 f ~ f } >>

The command \oneVoice will revert back to the normal setting.

Normally, note heads with a different number of dots are not merged, but when the object property merge-differently-dotted is set in the NoteCollision object, they are merged

     \context Voice << {
       g8 g8
       \override Staff.NoteCollision
         #'merge-differently-dotted = ##t
       g8 g8
     } \\ { g8.[ f16] g8.[ f16] } >>

Similarly, you can merge half note heads with eighth notes, by setting merge-differently-headed

     \context Voice << {
       c8 c4.
       \override Staff.NoteCollision
         #'merge-differently-headed = ##t
     c8 c4. } \\ { c2 c2 } >>

LilyPond also vertically shifts rests that are opposite of a stem, for example

     \context Voice << c''4 \\ r4 >>

Predefined commands

\oneVoice, \voiceOne, \voiceTwo, \voiceThree, \voiceFour.

\shiftOn, \shiftOnn, \shiftOnnn, \shiftOff: these commands specify in what chords of the current voice should be shifted. The outer voices (normally: voice one and two) have \shiftOff, while the inner voices (three and four) have \shiftOn. \shiftOnn and \shiftOnnn define further shift levels.

When LilyPond cannot cope, the force-hshift property of the NoteColumn object and pitched rests can be used to override typesetting decisions.

     \relative <<
     {
       <d g>
       <d g>
     } \\ {
       <b f'>
       \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.7
       <b f'>
     } >>

See also

Program reference: the objects responsible for resolving collisions are NoteCollision and RestCollision .

Examples: input/regression/collision-dots.ly, input/regression/collision-head-chords.ly, input/regression/collision-heads.ly, input/regression/collision-mesh.ly, and input/regression/collisions.ly.

Bugs

When using merge-differently-headed with an upstem eighth or a shorter note, and a downstem half note, the eighth note gets the wrong offset.

There is no support for clusters where the same note occurs with different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster notation (see Clusters).

5.5 Beaming

Beams are used to group short notes into chunks that are aligned with the metrum. LilyPond normally inserts beams automatically, but if you wish you may control them manually or changed how beams are automatically grouped.

5.5.1 Automatic beams

LilyPond inserts beams automatically

     \time 2/4 c8 c c c \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8

When these automatic decisions are not good enough, beaming can be entered explicitly. It is also possible to define beaming patterns that differ from the defaults.

Individual notes may be marked with \noBeam, to prevent them from being beamed

     \time 2/4 c8 c\noBeam c c

See also

Program reference: Beam .

5.5.2 Manual beams

In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming algorithm. For example, the autobeamer will not put beams over rests or bar lines. Such beams are specified manually by marking the begin and end point with [ and ]

     {
       r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
     }

Normally, beaming patterns within a beam are determined automatically. If necessary, the properties stemLeftBeamCount and stemRightBeamCount can be used to override the defaults. If either property is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased

     {
        f8[ r16
           f g a]
        f8[ r16
        \set stemLeftBeamCount = #1
           f g a]
     }

The property subdivideBeams can be set in order to subdivide all 16th or shorter beams at beat positions, as defined by the beatLength property.

     c16[ c c c c c c c]
     \set subdivideBeams = ##t
     c16[ c c c c c c c]
     \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
     c16[ c c c c c c c]

Normally, line breaks are forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This behavior can be changed by setting allowBeamBreak.

See also

User manual: Changing context properties on the fly for the \set command

Bugs

Kneed beams are inserted automatically, when a large gap is detected between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the object.

Automatically kneed cross-staff beams cannot be used together with hidden staves. See Hiding staves.

Beams do not avoid collisions with symbols around the notes, such as texts and accidentals.

5.5.3 Setting automatic beam behavior

In normal time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can only end in a few positions within the measure: beams can end on a beat, or at durations specified by the properties in autoBeamSettings. The defaults for autoBeamSettings are defined in scm/auto-beam.scm.

The value of autoBeamSettings is changed with two functions,

#(override-auto-beam-setting
   '(be p q n m) a b
   [context])
#(revert-auto-beam-setting '(be p q n m))

Here, be is the symbol begin or end, and context is an optional context (default: 'Voice). It determines whether the rule applies to begin or end-points. The quantity p/q refers to the length of the beamed notes (and `* *' designates notes of any length), n/M refers to a time signature (wildcards `* *' may be entered to designate all time signatures), a/b is a duration. By default, this command changes settings for the current voice. It is also possible to adjust settings at higher contexts, by adding a context argument.

For example, if automatic beams should end on every quarter note, use the following

#(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 1 4 'Staff)

Since the duration of a quarter note is 1/4 of a whole note, it is entered as (ly:make-moment 1 4).

The same syntax can be used to specify beam starting points. In this example, automatic beams can only end on a dotted quarter note

#(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 3 8)

In 4/4 time signature, this means that automatic beams could end only on 3/8 and on the fourth beat of the measure (after 3/4, that is 2 times 3/8, has passed within the measure).

Rules can also be restricted to specific time signatures. A rule that should only be applied in N/M time signature is formed by replacing the second asterisks by N and M. For example, a rule for 6/8 time exclusively looks like

#(override-auto-beam-setting '(begin * * 6 8) ...)

If a rule should be to applied only to certain types of beams, use the first pair of asterisks. Beams are classified according to the shortest note they contain. For a beam ending rule that only applies to beams with 32nd notes (and no shorter notes), use (end 1 32 * *).

If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then automatic beaming should be switched off. This is done by setting autoBeaming to #f.

Predefined commands

\autoBeamOff, \autoBeamOn.

Bugs

If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all. The same holds polyphonic voices, entered with << ... \\ ... >>. If a polyphonic voice ends while an automatic beam is still accepting notes, it is not typeset.

The rules for ending a beam depend on the shortest note in a beam. So, while it is possible to have different ending rules for eight beams and sixteenth beams, a beam that contains both eight and sixteenth notes will use the rules for the sixteenth beam.

In the example below, the autobeamer makes eighth beams and sixteenth end at three eighths. The third beam can only be corrected by specifying manual beaming.

It is not possible to specify beaming parameters that act differently in different parts of a measure. This means that it is not possible to use automatic beaming in irregular meters such as 5/8.

5.5.4 Beam formatting

When a beam falls in the middle of the staff, the beams point normally down. However, this behaviour can be altered with the neutral-direction property.

     {
       b8[ b]
       \override Beam #'neutral-direction = #-1
       b[ b]
       \override Beam #'neutral-direction = #1
       b[ b]
     }

5.6 Accidentals

This section describes how to change the way that accidentals are inserted automatically before notes.

5.6.1 Automatic accidentals

Common rules for typesetting accidents have been placed in a function. This function is called as follows

#(set-accidental-style 'STYLE #('CONTEXT#))

The function can take two arguments: the name of the accidental style, and an optional argument that denotes the context which should be changed. If no context name is supplied, Staff is the default, but you may wish to apply the accidental style to a single Voice instead.

The following accidental styles are supported

default

This is the default typesetting behavior. It corresponds to 18th century common practice: Accidentals are remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and only on their own octave.

voice

The normal behavior is to remember the accidentals on Staff-level. This variable, however, typesets accidentals individually for each voice. Apart from that, the rule is similar to default.

As a result, accidentals from one voice do not get canceled in other voices, which is often an unwanted result

          \context Staff <<
            #(set-accidental-style 'voice)
            <<
              { es g } \\
              { c, e }
          >> >>
     

The voice option should be used if the voices are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be used by one musician (e.g., a conductor) then modern or modern-cautionary should be used instead.

modern

This rule corresponds to the common practice in the 20th century. This rule prints the same accidentals as default, but temporary accidentals also are canceled in other octaves. Furthermore, in the same octave, they also get canceled in the following measure

          #(set-accidental-style 'modern)
          cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
     

modern-cautionary

This rule is similar to modern, but the “extra” accidentals (the ones not typeset by default) are typeset as cautionary accidentals. They are printed in reduced size or with parentheses

          #(set-accidental-style 'modern-cautionary)
          cis' c'' cis'2 | c'' c'
     

modern-voice

This rule is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice, but they are canceled across voices in the same Staff .

modern-voice-cautionary

This rule is the same as modern-voice, but with the extra accidentals (the ones not typeset by voice) typeset as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by default are typeset by this variable then some of them are typeset as cautionaries.

piano

This rule reflects 20th century practice for piano notation. Very similar to modern but accidentals also get canceled across the staves in the same GrandStaff or PianoStaff .

piano-cautionary

As #(set-accidental-style 'piano) but with the extra accidentals typeset as cautionaries.

no-reset

This is the same as default but with accidentals lasting “forever” and not only until the next measure

          #(set-accidental-style 'no-reset)
          c1 cis cis c
     

forget

This is sort of the opposite of no-reset: Accidentals are not remembered at all—and hence all accidentals are typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what was before in the music

          #(set-accidental-style 'forget)
          \key d\major c4 c cis cis d d dis dis
     

See also

Program reference: Accidental_engraver , Accidental , and AccidentalPlacement .

Bugs

Simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are typeset as if the notes in the chord happened once at a time - in the order in which they appear in the input file.

This is a problem when accidentals in a chord depend on each other, which does not happen for the default accidental style. The problem can be solved by manually inserting ! and ? for the problematic notes.

5.7 Expressive marks

Expressive marks help musicians to bring more to the music than simple notes and rhythms.

5.7.1 Slurs

A slur indicates that notes are to be played bound or legato.

They are entered using parentheses

     f( g a) a8 b( a4 g2 f4)
     <c e>2( <b d>2)

The direction of a slur can be set with the generic commands

\override Slur #'direction = #UP
\slurUp            % shortcut for the previous line

However, there is a convenient shorthand for forcing slur directions. By adding _ or ^ before the opening parentheses, the direction is also set. For example,

     c4_( c) c^( c)

Some composers write two slurs when they want legato chords. This can be achieved in LilyPond by setting doubleSlurs,

     \set doubleSlurs = ##t
     <c e>4 ( <d f> <c e> <d f> )

Predefined commands

\slurUp, \slurDown, \slurNeutral, \slurDotted, \slurSolid.

See also

Program reference: Slur , and SlurEvent .

5.7.2 Phrasing slurs

A phrasing slur (or phrasing mark) connects chords and is used to indicate a musical sentence. It is written using \( and \) respectively

     \time 6/4 c'\( d( e) f( e) d\)

Typographically, the phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects. A \slurUp will have no effect on a phrasing slur; instead, use \phrasingSlurUp, \phrasingSlurDown, and \phrasingSlurNeutral.

The commands \slurUp, \slurDown, and \slurNeutral will only affect normal slurs and not phrasing slurs.

Predefined commands

\phrasingSlurUp, \phrasingSlurDown, \phrasingSlurNeutral.

See also

Program reference: see also PhrasingSlur , and PhrasingSlurEvent .

Bugs

Putting phrasing slurs over rests leads to spurious warnings.

5.7.3 Breath marks

Breath marks are entered using \breathe

     c'4 \breathe d4

The glyph of the breath mark can be tuned by overriding the text property of the BreathingSign layout object with any markup text. For example,

     c'4
     \override BreathingSign #'text
       = #(make-musicglyph-markup "scripts-rvarcomma")
     \breathe
     d4

See also

Program reference: BreathingSign , BreathingSignEvent .

Examples: input/regression/breathing-sign.ly.

5.7.4 Metronome marks

Metronome settings can be entered as follows

\tempo duration = per-minute

In the MIDI output, they are interpreted as a tempo change. In the layout output, a metronome marking is printed

     \tempo 8.=120 c''1

See also

Program reference: MetronomeChangeEvent .

5.7.5 Text scripts

It is possible to place arbitrary strings of text or markup text (see Text markup) above or below notes by using a string c^"text". By default, these indications do not influence the note spacing, but by using the command \fatText, the widths will be taken into account

     c4^"longtext" \fatText c4_"longlongtext" c4

More complex formatting may also be added to a note by using the markup command,

     c'4^\markup { bla \bold bla }

The \markup is described in more detail in Text markup.

Predefined commands

\fatText, \emptyText.

See also

In this manual: Text markup.

Program reference: TextScriptEvent , TextScript .

5.7.6 Text spanners

Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando or accelerando, are written as text and are extended over many measures with dotted lines. Such texts are created using text spanners; attach \startTextSpan and \stopTextSpan to the first and last notes of the spanner.

The string to be printed, as well as the style, is set through object properties

     c1
     \override TextSpanner #'direction = #-1
     \override TextSpanner #'edge-text = #'("rall " . "")
     c2\startTextSpan b c\stopTextSpan a

See also

Internals TextSpanEvent , TextSpanner .

Examples: input/regression/text-spanner.ly.

5.7.7 Analysis brackets

Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical pieces. LilyPond supports a simple form of nested horizontal brackets. To use this, add the Horizontal_bracket_engraver to Staff context. A bracket is started with \startGroup and closed with \stopGroup

     \score {
       \relative c'' {
         c4\startGroup\startGroup
         c4\stopGroup
         c4\startGroup
         c4\stopGroup\stopGroup
       }
       \layout {
         \context {
           \Staff \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
     }}}

See also

Program reference: HorizontalBracket , NoteGroupingEvent .

Examples: input/regression/note-group-bracket.ly.

5.7.8 Articulations

A variety of symbols can appear above and below notes to indicate different characteristics of the performance. They are added to a note by adding a dash and the character signifying the articulation. They are demonstrated here

The meanings of these shorthands can be changed. See ly/script-init.ly for examples.

The script is automatically placed, but the direction can be forced as well. Like other pieces of LilyPond code, _ will place them below the staff, and ^ will place them above.

     c''4^^ c''4_^

Other symbols can be added using the syntax note\name. Again, they can be forced up or down using ^ and _, e.g.

     c\fermata c^\fermata c_\fermata

Here is a chart showing all scripts available,

The vertical ordering of scripts is controlled with the script-priority property. The lower this number, the closer it will be put to the note. In this example, the TextScript (the sharp symbol) first has the lowest priority, so it is put lowest in the first example. In the second, the prall trill (the Script ) has the lowest, so it on the inside. When two objects have the same priority, the order in which they are entered decides which one comes first.

     \once \override TextScript #'script-priority = #-100
     a4^\prall^\markup { \sharp }
     
     \once \override Script #'script-priority = #-100
     a4^\prall^\markup { \sharp }

See also

Program reference: ScriptEvent , and Script .

Bugs

These signs appear in the printed output but have no effect on the MIDI rendering of the music.

5.7.9 Running trills

Long running trills are made with \startTrillSpan and \stopTrillSpan,

     \new Voice {
       << { c1 \startTrillSpan }
          { s2. \grace { d16[\stopTrillSpan e] } } >>
       c4 }

Predefined commands

\startTrillSpan, \stopTrillSpan.

See also

Program reference: TrillSpanner , TrillSpanEvent .

5.7.10 Fingering instructions

Fingering instructions can be entered using

note-digit

For finger changes, use markup texts

     c4-1 c-2 c-3 c-4
     c^\markup { \finger "2-3" }

You can use the thumb-script to indicate that a note should be played with the thumb (e.g., in cello music)

     <a_\thumb a'-3>8 <b_\thumb b'-3>

Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes of the chord by adding them after the pitches

     < c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5 >4

In this case, setting fingeringOrientations will put fingerings next to note heads

     \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left down)
     <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4
     \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up right down)
     <c-1 es-2 g-4 bes-5 > 4

Using this feature, it is also possible to put fingering instructions very close to note heads in monophonic music,

     \set fingeringOrientations = #'(right)
     <es'-2>4

See also

Program reference: FingerEvent , and Fingering .

Examples: input/regression/finger-chords.ly.

5.7.11 Grace notes

Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. The most common ones are acciaccatura, which should be played as very short. It is denoted by a slurred small note with a slashed stem. The appoggiatura is a grace note that takes a fixed fraction of the main note, and is denoted as a slurred note in small print without a slash. They are entered with the commands \acciaccatura and \appoggiatura, as demonstrated in the following example

     b4 \acciaccatura d8 c4 \appoggiatura e8 d4
     \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4

Both are special forms of the \grace command. By prefixing this keyword to a music expression, a new one is formed, which will be printed in a smaller font and takes up no logical time in a measure.

     c4 \grace c16 c4
     \grace { c16[ d16] } c2 c4

Unlike \acciaccatura and \appoggiatura, the \grace command does not start a slur.

Internally, timing for grace notes is done using a second, `grace' time. Every point in time consists of two rational numbers: one denotes the logical time, one denotes the grace timing. The above example is shown here with timing tuples

The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves. In the following example, there are two sixteenth graces notes for every eighth grace note

     << \new Staff { e4 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e4 }
        \new Staff { c4 \grace { g8[ b] } c4 } >>

If you want to end a note with a grace, the standard trick is to put the grace notes after a “space note”

     \context Voice {
       << { d1^\trill_( }
          { s2 \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
       c4)
     }

By adjusting the duration of the skip note (here it is a half-note), the space between the main-note and the grace is adjusted.

A \grace section will introduce special typesetting settings, for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when introducing layout tweaks, they should be inside the grace section, for example,

     \new Voice {
       \acciaccatura {
         \stemDown
         f16->
         \stemNeutral
       }
       g4
     }

The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace section.

The layout of grace sections can be changed throughout the music using the function add-grace-property. The following example undefines the Stem direction for this grace, so stems do not always point up.

\new Staff {
  #(add-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction '())
  ...
}

Another option is to change the variables startGraceMusic, stopGraceMusic, startAcciaccaturaMusic, stopAcciaccaturaMusic, startAppoggiaturaMusic, stopAppoggiaturaMusic. More information is in the file ly/grace-init.ly.

See also

Program reference: GraceMusic .

Bugs

A score that starts with a \grace section needs an explicit \context Voice declaration, otherwise the main note and grace note end up on different staves.

Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation, such as key signatures, bar lines, etc., are also synchronized. Take care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,

     << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d4 }
        \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d4 } >>

This can be remedied by inserting grace skips, for the above example

\new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" \grace s16 d4 }

Grace sections should only be used within sequential music expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported, and might produce crashes or other errors.

5.7.12 Glissando

A glissando is a smooth change in pitch. It is denoted by a line or a wavy line between two notes. It is requested by attaching \glissando to a note

     c\glissando c'

See also

Program reference: Glissando , and GlissandoEvent .

Example files: input/regression/glissando.ly.

Bugs

Printing text over the line (such as gliss.) is not supported.

5.7.13 Dynamics

Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note c4\ff. The available dynamic marks are \ppp, \pp, \p, \mp, \mf, \f, \ff, \fff, \fff, \fp, \sf, \sff, \sp, \spp, \sfz, and \rfz

     c\ppp c\pp c \p c\mp c\mf c\f c\ff c\fff
     c2\fp c\sf c\sff c\sp c\spp c\sfz c\rfz

A crescendo mark is started with \< and terminated with \!. A decrescendo is started with \> and also terminated with \!. Because these marks are bound to notes, if you must use spacer notes if multiple marks are needed during one note

     c\< c\! d\> e\!
     << f1 { s4 s4\< s4\! \> s4\! } >>

This may give rise to very short hairpins. Use minimum-length in Voice . Hairpin to lengthen them, for example

\override Staff.Hairpin #'minimum-length = #5

You can also use a text saying cresc. instead of hairpins. Here is an example how to do it

     \setTextCresc
     c \< d e f\!
     \setHairpinCresc
     e\> d c b\!

You can also supply your own texts

     \set crescendoText = \markup { \italic "cresc. poco" }
     \set crescendoSpanner = #'dashed-line
     a'2\< a a a\!\mf

Predefined commands

\dynamicUp, \dynamicDown, \dynamicNeutral.

See also

Program reference: CrescendoEvent , DecrescendoEvent , and AbsoluteDynamicEvent .

Dynamics are DynamicText and Hairpin objects. Vertical positioning of these symbols is handled by the DynamicLineSpanner object.

5.8 Repeats

Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist for repetitions.

5.8.1 Repeat types

The following types of repetition are supported

unfold

Repeated music is fully written (played) out. This is useful when entering repetitious music. This is the only kind of repeat that is included in MIDI output.

volta

Repeats are not written out, but alternative endings (volte) are printed, left to right with brackets. This is the standard notation for repeats with alternatives. These are not played in MIDI output by default.

tremolo

Make tremolo beams. These are not played in MIDI output by default.

percent

Make beat or measure repeats. These look like percent signs. These are not played in MIDI output by default.

5.8.2 Repeat syntax

LilyPond has one syntactic construct for specifying different types of repeats. The syntax is

\repeat variant repeatcount repeatbody

If you have alternative endings, you may add

\alternative { alternative1
               alternative2
               alternative3 ... }

where each alternative is a music expression. If you do not give enough alternatives for all of the repeats, the first alternative is assumed to be played more than once.

Standard repeats are used like this

     c1
     \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
     \repeat volta 2 { f e d c }

With alternative endings

     c1
     \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f}
     \alternative { {d2 d} {f f,} }

     \context Staff {
       \partial 4
       \repeat volta 4 { e | c2 d2 | e2 f2 | }
       \alternative { { g4 g g } { a | a a a a | b2. } }
     }

It is possible to shorten volta brackets by setting voltaSpannerDuration. In the next example, the bracket only lasts one measure, which is a duration of 3/4.

     \relative c''{
       \time 3/4
       c c c
       \set Staff.voltaSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 3 4)
       \repeat "volta" 5 { d d d }
       \alternative { { e e e f f f }
       { g g g } }
     }

See also

Examples:

Brackets for the repeat are normally only printed over the topmost staff. This can be adjusted by setting the voltaOnThisStaff property input/regression/volta-multi-staff.ly, input/regression/volta-chord-names.ly

Bugs

A nested repeat like

\repeat ...
\repeat ...
\alternative

is ambiguous, since it is is not clear to which \repeat the \alternative belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the \alternative belong to the inner \repeat. For clarity, it is advisable to use braces in such situations.

Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative, so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand, for example by setting Score.measurePosition or entering \partial. Similarly, slurs or ties are also not repeated.

5.8.3 Repeats and MIDI

With a little bit of tweaking, all types of repeats can be present in the MIDI output. This is achieved by applying the \unfoldrepeats music function. This functions changes all repeats to unfold repeats.

     \unfoldrepeats {
       \repeat tremolo 8 {c'32 e' }
       \repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' }
       \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
       \alternative {
         { g' a' a' g' }
         {f' e' d' c' }
       }
     }
     \bar "|."

When creating a score file using \unfoldrepeats for midi, then it is necessary to make two \score blocks. One for MIDI (with unfolded repeats) and one for notation (with volta, tremolo, and percent repeats). For example,

\score {
  ..music..
  \layout { .. }
}
\score {
  \unfoldrepeats ..music..
  \midi { .. }
}

5.8.4 Manual repeat commands

The property repeatCommands can be used to control the layout of repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands.

start-repeat

Print a |: bar line.

end-repeat

Print a :| bar line.

(volta text)

Print a volta bracket saying text: The text can be specified as a text string or as a markup text, see Text markup. Do not forget to change the font, as the default number font does not contain alphabetic characters;

(volta #f)

Stop a running volta bracket.

     c4
       \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "93") end-repeat)
     c4 c4
       \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
     c4 c4

See also

Program reference: VoltaBracket , RepeatedMusic , VoltaRepeatedMusic , UnfoldedRepeatedMusic , and FoldedRepeatedMusic .

5.8.5 Tremolo repeats

To place tremolo marks between notes, use \repeat with tremolo style

     \new Voice \relative c' {
       \repeat "tremolo" 8 { c16 d16 }
       \repeat "tremolo" 4 { c16 d16 }
       \repeat "tremolo" 2 { c16 d16 }
     }

Tremolo marks can also be put on a single note. In this case, the note should not be surrounded by braces.

     \repeat "tremolo" 4 c'16

Similar output is obtained using the tremolo subdivision, described in Tremolo subdivisions.

See also

In this manual: Tremolo subdivisions, Repeats.

Program reference: tremolo beams are Beam objects. Single stem tremolos are StemTremolo objects. The music expression is TremoloEvent .

Example files: input/regression/chord-tremolo.ly, input/regression/stem-tremolo.ly.

5.8.6 Tremolo subdivisions

Tremolo marks can be printed on a single note by adding `:[number]' after the note. The number indicates the duration of the subdivision, and it must be at least 8. A length value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the length is omitted, the last value (stored in tremoloFlags) is used

     c'2:8 c':32 | c': c': |

Bugs

Tremolos entered in this way do not carry over into the MIDI output.

See also

In this manual: Tremolo repeats.

Elsewhere: StemTremolo , TremoloEvent .

5.8.7 Measure repeats

In the percent style, a note pattern can be repeated. It is printed once, and then the pattern is replaced with a special sign. Patterns of one and two measures are replaced by percent-like signs, patterns that divide the measure length are replaced by slashes

     \new Voice \relative c' {
       \repeat "percent" 4 { c4 }
       \repeat "percent" 2 { c2 es2 f4 fis4 g4 c4 }
     }

See also

Program reference: RepeatSlash , PercentRepeat , PercentRepeatedMusic , and DoublePercentRepeat .

5.9 Rhythmic music

Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.

5.9.1 Showing melody rhythms

Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line

     \context RhythmicStaff {
       \time 4/4
       c4 e8 f g2 | r4 g r2 | g1:32 | r1 |
     }

See also

Program reference: RhythmicStaff .

Examples: input/regression/rhythmic-staff.ly.

5.9.2 Entering percussion

Percussion notes may be entered in \drummode mode, which is similar to the standard mode for entering notes. Each piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used in input files

     \drums {
       hihat hh bassdrum bd
     }

The complete list of drum names is in the init file ly/drumpitch-init.ly.

See also

Program reference: DrumNoteEvent .

5.9.3 Percussion staves

A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a multi line staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece of percussion.

To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in a DrumStaff and DrumVoice contexts

     up = \drummode { crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat }
     down = \drummode { bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4 }
       \new DrumStaff <<
         \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
         \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
       >>

The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short polyphonic notation, described in Polyphony, can also be used if the DrumVoices are instantiated by hand first. For example,

     \new DrumStaff <<
       \context DrumVoice = "1" { s1 *2 }
       \context DrumVoice = "2" { s1 *2 }
       \drummode {
         bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
         <<
           { \repeat unfold 16 hh16 }
           \\
           { bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4 }
         >>
       }
     >>

There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the property drumStyleTable in context DrumVoice . The following variables have been predefined

drums-style

This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff

The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there fewer toms, simply select the toms that produce the desired result, i.e., to get toms on the three middle lines you use tommh, tomml and tomfh.

timbales-style

This typesets timbales on a two line staff

congas-style

This typesets congas on a two line staff

bongos-style

This typesets bongos on a two line staff

percussion-style

To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves.

If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own list at the top of your file

     #(define mydrums '(
              (bassdrum     default   #f         -1)
              (snare        default   #f         0)
              (hihat        cross     #f         1)
              (pedalhihat   xcircle   "stopped"  2)
              (lowtom       diamond   #f         3)))
     up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
     down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }
     
     \new DrumStaff <<
       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
       \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
       \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
     >>

See also

Init files: ly/drumpitch-init.ly.

Program reference: DrumStaff , DrumVoice .

Bugs

Because general MIDI does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used for this purpose instead.

5.10 Piano music

Piano staves are two normal staves coupled with a brace. The staves are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. The same notation is also used for harps and other key instruments. The PianoStaff is especially built to handle this cross-staffing behavior. In this section we discuss the PianoStaff and some other pianistic peculiarities.

Bugs

Dynamics are not centered, but workarounds do exist. See the “piano centered dynamics” template in Piano templates.

The distance between the two staves is the same for all systems in the score. It is possible to override this per system, but it does require an arcane command incantation. See input/test/piano-staff-distance.ly.

5.10.1 Automatic staff changes

Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom staff. The syntax for this is

     \autochange ...music...

This will create two staves inside the current PianoStaff, called up and down. The lower staff will be in bass clef by default.

A \relative section that is outside of \autochange has no effect on the pitches of music, so, if necessary, put \relative inside \autochange like

     \autochange \relative ... ...

The autochanger switches on basis of pitch (middle C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in advance. Here is a practical example

     \context PianoStaff
       \autochange \relative c'
       {
         g4 a b c d r4 a g
       }

See also

In this manual: Manual staff switches.

Program reference: AutoChangeMusic .

Bugs

The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.

\autochange cannot be inside \times.

Internally, the \partcombine interprets both arguments as Voices named one and two, and then decides when the parts can be combined. Consequently, if the arguments switch to differently named Voice contexts, the events in those will be ignored.

5.10.2 Manual staff switches

Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command

\change Staff = staffname music

The string staffname is the name of the staff. It switches the current voice from its current staff to the Staff called staffname. Typically staffname is "up" or "down". The Staff referred to must already exist, so usually the setup for a score will start with a setup of the staves,

<<
  \context Staff = up {
    \skip 1 * 10  % keep staff alive
    }
  \context Staff = down {
    \skip 1 * 10  % idem
    }
>>

and the Voice is inserted afterwards

\context Staff = down
  \new Voice { ... \change Staff = up ... }

5.10.3 Pedals

Pianos have pedals that alter the way sound is produced. Generally, a piano has three pedals, sustain, una corda, and sostenuto.

Piano pedal instruction can be expressed by attaching \sustainDown, \sustainUp, \unaCorda, \treCorde, \sostenutoDown and \sostenutoUp to a note or chord

     c'4\sustainDown c'4\sustainUp

What is printed can be modified by setting pedalXStrings, where X is one of the pedal types: Sustain, Sostenuto or UnaCorda. Refer to SustainPedal in the program reference for more information.

Pedals can also be indicated by a sequence of brackets, by setting the pedalSustainStyle property to bracket objects

     \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
     c\sustainDown d e
     b\sustainUp\sustainDown
     b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."

A third style of pedal notation is a mixture of text and brackets, obtained by setting the pedalSustainStyle style property to mixed

     \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
     c\sustainDown d e
     b\sustainUp\sustainDown
     b g \sustainUp a \sustainDown \bar "|."

The default `*Ped.' style for sustain and damper pedals corresponds to style #'text. The sostenuto pedal uses mixed style by default.

     c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp

For fine-tuning of the appearance of a pedal bracket, the properties edge-width, edge-height, and shorten-pair of PianoPedalBracket objects (see PianoPedalBracket in the Program reference) can be modified. For example, the bracket may be extended to the right edge of the note head

     \override Staff.PianoPedalBracket #'shorten-pair = #'(0 . -1.0)
     c\sostenutoDown d e c, f g a\sostenutoUp

5.10.4 Arpeggio

You can specify an arpeggio sign on a chord by attaching an \arpeggio to a chord

     <c e g c>\arpeggio

When an arpeggio crosses staves, you attach an arpeggio to the chords in both staves, and set PianoStaff .connectArpeggios

     \context PianoStaff <<
       \set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
       \new Staff { <c' e g c>\arpeggio }
       \new Staff { \clef bass <c,, e g>\arpeggio }
     >>

The direction of the arpeggio is sometimes denoted by adding an arrowhead to the wiggly line

     \context Voice {
       \arpeggioUp
       <c e g c>\arpeggio
       \arpeggioDown
       <c e g c>\arpeggio
     }

A square bracket on the left indicates that the player should not arpeggiate the chord

     \arpeggioBracket
     <c' e g c>\arpeggio

Predefined commands

\arpeggio, \arpeggioUp, \arpeggioDown, \arpeggioNeutral, \arpeggioBracket.

See also

Program reference: ArpeggioEvent , Arpeggio .

Bugs

It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios in one PianoStaff at the same point in time.

5.10.5 Staff switch lines

Whenever a voice switches to another staff a line connecting the notes can be printed automatically. This is switched on by setting PianoStaff.followVoice to true

     \context PianoStaff <<
       \set PianoStaff.followVoice = ##t
       \context Staff \context Voice {
         c1
         \change Staff=two
         b2 a
       }
      \context Staff=two { \clef bass \skip 1*2 }
     >>

See also

Program reference: VoiceFollower .

Predefined commands

\showStaffSwitch, \hideStaffSwitch.

5.10.6 Cross staff stems

The chords which cross staves may be produced by increasing the length of the stem in the lower stave, so it reaches the stem in the upper stave, or vice versa.

     stemExtend = \once \override Stem #'length = #22
     noFlag = \once \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
     \context PianoStaff <<
       \new Staff {
         \stemDown \stemExtend
         f'4
         \stemExtend \noFlag
         f'8
       }
       \new Staff {
         \clef bass
         a4 a8
       }
     >>

5.11 Vocal music

There are three different issues when printing vocal music

• Song texts must be entered as texts, not notes. For example, the input d should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the note D.
• Song texts must be printed as text, not as notes.
• Song texts must be aligned with the notes of their melody

The simplest solution to printing music uses the \addlyrics function to solve all these problems at once. However, these three functions can be controlled separately, which is necessary for complex vocal music.

5.11.1 Setting simple songs

The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append

\addlyrics { the lyrics }

to a melody. Here is an example,

     \time 3/4
     \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
     \addlyrics { play the game }

More stanzas can be added by adding more \addlyrics sections

     \time 3/4
     \relative { c2 e4 g2. }
     \addlyrics { play the game }
     \addlyrics { speel het spel }
     \addlyrics { joue le jeu }

The \addlyrics command is actually just a convienient way to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the lyrics. You should use \addlyrics unless you need to fancy things, in which case you should investigate \lyricsto or \lyricmode.

{ MUSIC }
\addlyrics { LYRICS }

is the same as

\context Voice = blah { music }
\lyricsto "blah" \lyricsmode \new lyrics { LYRICS }

5.11.2 Entering lyrics

Lyrics are entered in a special input mode. This mode is is introduced by the keyword \lyricmode, or by using addlyrics or lyricsto. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation and accents, and the input d is not parsed as a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,

\lyricmode { Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 }

A word lyrics mode begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with any space or digit. The following characters can be any character that is not a digit or white space. One important consequence of this is that a word can end with }. The following example is usually a mistake in the input file. The syllable includes a }, so the opening brace is not balanced

\lyricmode { twinkle }

Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around property commands

\override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic

Any _ character which appears in an unquoted word is converted to a space. This provides a mechanism for introducing spaces into words without using quotes. Quoted words can also be used in Lyrics mode to specify words that cannot be written with the above rules. The following example incorporates double quotes

\lyricmode { He said: "\"Let" my peo ple "go\"" }

This example is slightly academic, since it gives better looking results to use single quotes, `` and ''

\lyricmode { He said: ``Let my peo ple go'' }

The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more complex.

A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, _, ?, !, :, ', the control characters ^A through ^F, ^Q through ^W, ^Y, ^^, any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character combination of a backslash followed by one of `, ', ", or ^.

See also

Program reference: events LyricEvent , and LyricText .

Bugs

The definition of lyrics mode is too complex.

5.11.3 Hyphens and extenders

Centered hyphens are entered as `--' between syllables. The hyphen will have variable length depending on the space between the syllables and it will be centered between the syllables.

When a lyric is sung over many notes (this is called a melisma), this is indicated with a horizontal line centered between a syllable and the next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as __.

See also

Program reference: HyphenEvent , ExtenderEvent , LyricHyphen , and LyricExtender

Examples: input/test/lyric-hyphen-retain.ly.

5.11.4 The Lyrics context

Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in a Lyrics context

\context Lyrics \lyricmode ...

This will place the lyrics according to the durations that were entered. The lyrics can also be aligned under a given melody automatically. In this case, it is no longer necessary to enter the correct duration for each syllable. This is achieved by combining the melody and the lyrics with the \lyricsto expression

\lyricsto name \new Lyrics ...

This aligns the lyrics to the notes of the Voice context called name, which has to exist. Therefore, normally the Voice is specified first, and then the lyrics are specified with \lyricsto. The command \lyricsto switches to \lyricmode mode automatically, so the \lyricmode keyword may be omitted.

For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.

\context ChoirStaff <<
  \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics { s1 }
  \context Voice = soprano { music }
  \context Lyrics = tenorLyrics { s1 }
  \context Voice = tenor { music }
>>

and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines

\lyricsto "soprano" \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics
  the lyrics

The final input would resemble

<<\context ChoirStaff << setup the music >>
  \lyricsto "soprano" etc
  \lyricsto "alto" etc
  etc
>>

The \lyricsto command detects melismata: it only puts one syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert \melisma after the first note of the group, and \melismaEnd after the last one, e.g.

     <<
       \context Voice = "lala" {
         \time 3/4
         f4 g8
         \melisma
         f e f
         \melismaEnd
         e2
       }
       \lyricsto "lala" \new Lyrics {
         la di __ daah
       }
     >>

In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually beamed, and automatic beaming (see Setting automatic beam behavior) is switched off.

Lyrics can also be entered without \lyricsto. In this case the durations of each syllable must be entered explicitly, for example,

play2 the4 game2.
sink2 or4 swim2.

The alignment to a melody can be specified with the associatedVoice property,

\set associatedVoice = #"lala"

The value of the property (here: "lala") should be the name of a Voice context. Without this setting, extender lines will not be formatted properly.

Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,

     << \context Voice = melody {
          \time 3/4
          c2 e4 g2.
       }
       \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
         \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
         play2 the4 game2.
       } >>

A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section Small ensembles.

Predefined commands

\melisma, \melismaEnd

See also

Program reference: LyricCombineMusic , Lyrics , Melisma_translator .

Examples: Small ensembles, input/regression/lyric-combine-new.ly, input/test/lyrics-melisma-variants.ly. input/test/lyrics-melisma-faster.ly.

Bugs

Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be inserted by hand.

5.11.5 Flexibility in alignment

Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with \lyricsto.

One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting ignoreMelismata in the Lyrics context.

There has one tricky aspect. The setting for ignoreMelismata must be set one syllable before the non-melismatic syllable in the text, as shown here,

     <<
       \relative \context Voice = "lahlah" {
         \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
         c4
         \slurDotted
         f8.[( g16])
         a4
       }
       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
         more slow -- ly
       }
       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
         \set ignoreMelismata = ##t % applies to "fas"
         go fas -- ter
         \unset ignoreMelismata
         still
       }
     >>

The ignoreMelismata applies to the syllable “fas”, so it should be entered before “go”.

The reverse is also possible: making a lyric line slower than the standard. This can be achieved by insert \skips into the lyrics. For every \skip, the text will be delayed another note. For example,

     \relative { c c g' }
     \addlyrics {
       twin -- \skip 4
       kle
     }

More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is done by setting the associatedVoice property. In the example

the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called “lahlah”,

\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
  Ju -- ras -- sic Park
}

The second stanza initially is set to the lahlah context, but for the syllable “ran”, it switches to a different melody. This is achieved with

\set associatedVoice = alternative

Here, alternative is the name of the Voice context containing the triplet.

Again, the command must be one syllable too early, before “Ty” in this case.

\new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
  \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
  Ty --
  ran --
  no --
  \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
  sau -- rus Rex
}

The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning lahlah to associatedVoice.

5.11.6 More stanzas

Stanza numbers can be added by setting stanza, e.g.

     \new Voice {
       \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
     } \addlyrics {
       \set stanza = "1. "
       Hi, my name is Bert.
     } \addlyrics {
       \set stanza = "2. "
       Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
     }

These numbers are put just before the start of first syllable.

Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting vocalName. A short version may be entered as vocNam.

     \new Voice {
       \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
     } \addlyrics {
       \set vocalName = "Bert "
       Hi, my name is Bert.
     } \addlyrics {
       \set vocalName = "Ernie "
       Oh, che -- ri, je t'aime
     }

See also

Program reference: Layout objects LyricText and VocalName . Music expressions LyricEvent .

5.11.7 Ambitus

The term ambitus denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It also may denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Ambits are printed on vocal parts, so performers can easily determine it meets their capabilities.

It denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef. The range is graphically specified by two note heads, that represent the minimum and maximum pitch. To print such ambits, add the Ambitus_engraver to the Voice context, for example,

\layout {
  \context {
    \Voice
    \consists Ambitus_engraver
  }
}

This results in the following output

If you have multiple voices in a single staff, and you want a single ambitus per staff rather than per each voice, add the Ambitus_engraver to the Staff context rather than to the Voice context. Here is an example,

     \new Staff <<
       \new Voice \with {
         \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
       } \relative c'' {
         \override Ambitus #'X-offset-callbacks
           = #(list (lambda (grob axis) -1.0))
         \voiceOne
         c4 a d e f2
       }
       \new Voice \with {
         \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
       } \relative c' {
         \voiceTwo
         es4 f g as b2
       }
     >>

This example uses one advanced feature,

\override Ambitus #'X-offset-callbacks
  = #(list (lambda (grob axis) -1.0))

This code moves the ambitus to the left. The same effect could have been achieved with extra-offset, but then the formatting system would not reserve space for the moved object.

See also

Program reference: Ambitus , AmbitusLine , AmbitusNoteHead , AmbitusAccidental .

Examples: input/regression/ambitus.ly.

Bugs

There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice ambitus.

5.12 Other instrument specific notation

This section includes extra information for writing string music, and may include extra information for other instruments in the future.

5.12.1 Harmonic notes

Artificial harmonics are notated with a different notehead style. They are entered by marking the harmonic pitch with \harmonic.

     <c' g'\harmonic>4

5.13 Tablatures

Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond offers limited support for tablature.

5.13.1 Tablatures basic

The string number associated to a note is given as a backslash followed by a number, e.g., c4\3 for a C quarter on the third string. By default, string 1 is the highest one, and the tuning defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes are printed as tablature, by using TabStaff and TabVoice contexts

     \context TabStaff {
       a,4\5 c'\2 a\3 e'\1
       e\4 c'\2 a\3 e'\1
     }

When no string is specified, the first string that does not give a fret number less than minimumFret is selected. The default value for minimumFret is 0

e16 fis gis a b4
\set TabStaff.minimumFret = #8
e16 fis gis a b4

See also

Program reference: TabStaff , TabVoice , and StringNumberEvent .

Bugs

Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic string selector may easily select the same string to two notes in a chord.

5.13.2 Non-guitar tablatures

You can change the number of strings, by setting the number of lines in the TabStaff .

You can change the tuning of the strings. A string tuning is given as a Scheme list with one integer number for each string, the number being the pitch (measured in semitones relative to middle C) of an open string. The numbers specified for stringTuning are the numbers of semitones to subtract or add, starting the specified pitch by default middle C, in string order. In the next example, stringTunings is set for the pitches e, a, d, and g

     \context TabStaff <<
       \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(-5 -10 -15 -20)
       {
         a,4 c' a e' e c' a e'
       }
     >>

Bugs

No guitar special effects have been implemented.

See also

Program reference: Tab_note_heads_engraver .

5.14 Popular music

This section discusses issues that arise when writing popular music.

5.14.1 Chord names

LilyPond has support for printing chord names. Chords may be entered in musical chord notation, i.e., < .. >, but they can also be entered by name. Internally, the chords are represented as a set of pitches, so they can be transposed

     twoWays = \transpose c c' {
       \chordmode {
         c1 f:sus4 bes/f
       }
       <c e g>
       <f bes c'>
       <f bes d'>
     }
     
     << \context ChordNames \twoWays
        \context Voice \twoWays >>

This example also shows that the chord printing routines do not try to be intelligent. The last chord (f bes d) is not interpreted as an inversion.

5.14.2 Chords mode

In chord mode sets of pitches (chords) are entered with normal note names. A chord is entered by the root, which is entered like a normal pitch

     \chordmode { es4. d8 c2 }

The mode is introduced by the keyword \chordmode.

Other chords may be entered by suffixing a colon and introducing a modifier (which may include a number if desired)

     \chordmode { e1:m e1:7 e1:m7 }

The first number following the root is taken to be the `type' of the chord, thirds are added to the root until it reaches the specified number

     \chordmode { c:3 c:5 c:6 c:7 c:8 c:9 c:10 c:11 }

More complex chords may also be constructed adding separate steps to a chord. Additions are added after the number following the colon, and are separated by dots

     \chordmode { c:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13 }

Chord steps can be altered by suffixing a - or + sign to the number

     \chordmode { c:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7- }

Removals are specified similarly, and are introduced by a caret. They must come after the additions

     \chordmode { c^3 c:7^5 c:9^3.5 }

Modifiers can be used to change pitches. The following modifiers are supported

m

The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd and (if present) the 7th step.

dim

The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present) the 7th step.

aug

The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step.

maj

The major 7th chord. This modifier raises the 7th step if present.

sus

The suspended 4th or 2nd. This modifier removes the 3rd step. Append either 2 or 4 to add the 2nd or 4th step to the chord.

Modifiers can be mixed with additions

       \chordmode { c:sus4 c:7sus4 c:dim7 c:m6 }

Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an unaltered 3, the 11 is removed in this case (unless it is added explicitly)

     \chordmode { c:13 c:13.11 c:m13 }

An inversion (putting one pitch of the chord on the bottom), as well as bass notes, can be specified by appending /pitch to the chord

     \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }

A bass note can be added instead of transposed out of the chord, by using /+pitch.

     \chordmode { c1 c/+g c/+f }

Chords is a mode similar to \lyricmode etc. Most of the commands continue to work, for example, r and \skip can be used to insert rests and spaces, and property commands may be used to change various settings.

Bugs

Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following simply produces the augmented chord, since 5+ is interpreted last

     \chordmode { c:5.5-.5+ }

5.14.3 Printing chord names

For displaying printed chord names, use the ChordNames context. The chords may be entered either using the notation described above, or directly using < and >

     harmonies = {
       \chordmode {a1 b c} <d' f' a'> <e' g' b'>
     }
     <<
       \context ChordNames \harmonies
       \context Staff \harmonies
     >>

You can make the chord changes stand out by setting ChordNames .chordChanges to true. This will only display chord names when there is a change in the chords scheme and at the start of a new line

     harmonies = \chordmode {
       c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
     }
     <<
       \context ChordNames {
         \set chordChanges = ##t
         \harmonies }
       \context Staff \transpose c c' \harmonies
     >>

The previous examples all show chords over a staff. This is not necessary. Chords may also be printed separately. It may be necessary to add Volta_engraver and Bar_engraver for showing repeats.

\new ChordNames \with {
  \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
  voltaOnThisStaff = ##t
  \consists Bar_engraver
  \consists "Volta_engraver"
}
\repeat volta 2 \chordmode {
  f1:maj f:7 bes:7
  c:maj
} \alternative {
  es e
}

   

The default chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by Klaus Ignatzek (see Literature list). It can be tuned through the following properties

chordNameExceptions

This is a list that contains the chords that have special formatting.

The exceptions list should be encoded as

     { <c f g bes>1 \markup { \super "7" "wahh" } }

To get this information into chordNameExceptions takes a little manoeuvring. The following code transforms chExceptionMusic (which is a sequential music) into a list of exceptions.

     (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)

Then,

     (append
      (sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
      ignatzekExceptions)

adds the new exceptions to the default ones, which are defined in ly/chord-modifier-init.ly.

For an example of tuning this property, see also input/regression/chord-name-exceptions.ly.

majorSevenSymbol

This property contains the markup object used for the 7th step, when it is major. Predefined options are whiteTriangleMarkup and blackTriangleMarkup. See input/regression/chord-name-major7.ly for an example.

chordNameSeparator

Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a slash. By setting chordNameSeparator, you can specify other separators, e.g.

          \context ChordNames \chordmode {
            c:7sus4
            \set chordNameSeparator
              = \markup { \typewriter "|" }
            c:7sus4
          }
     

chordRootNamer

The root of a chord is usually printed as a letter with an optional alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this function. Special note names (for example, the German “H” for a B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.

chordNoteNamer

The default is to print single pitch, e.g., the bass note, using the chordRootNamer. The chordNoteNamer property can be set to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the base can be printed in lower case.

The predefined variables \germanChords, \semiGermanChords set these variables. The effect is demonstrated here,

There are also two other chord name schemes implemented: an alternate Jazz chord notation, and a systematic scheme called Banter chords. The alternate jazz notation is also shown on the chart in Chord name chart. Turning on these styles is described in the input file input/test/chord-names-jazz.ly.

Predefined commands

\germanChords, \semiGermanChords.

See also

Examples: input/regression/chord-name-major7.ly, input/regression/chord-name-exceptions.ly, input/test/chord-names-jazz.ly, input/test/chords-without-melody.ly.

Init files: scm/chords-ignatzek.scm, and scm/chord-entry.scm.

Bugs

Chord names are determined solely from the list of pitches. Chord inversions are not identified, and neither are added bass notes. This may result in strange chord names when chords are entered with the < .. > syntax.

5.14.4 Fret diagrams

Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The markup contains information about the desired fret diagram, as shown in the following example

     \context Voice {
       d' ^\markup \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"
       d' d' d'
       fis' ^\markup \override #'(size . 0.75) {
         \override #'(finger-code . below-string) {
           \fret-diagram-verbose #'((place-fret 6 2 1) (barre 6 1 2)
                                    (place-fret 5 4 3) (place-fret 4 4 4)
                                    (place-fret 3 3 2) (place-fret 2 2 1)
                                    (place-fret 1 2 1))
         }
       }
       fis' fis' fis'
       c' ^\markup \override #'(dot-radius . 0.35) {
         \override #'(finger-code . in-dot) {
           \override #'(dot-color . white) {
             \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-);"
           }
         }
       }
       c' c' c'
     }

There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse, and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the markup interfaces are found at Overview of text markup commands.

You can set a number of graphical properties according to your preference. Details about the property interface to fret diagrams are found at fret-diagram-interface .

See also

Examples: input/test/fret-diagram.ly

5.14.5 Improvisation

Improvisation is sometimes denoted with slashed note heads. Such note heads can be created by adding a Pitch_squash_engraver to the Staff or Voice context. Then, the following command

\set squashedPosition = #0
\override NoteHead #'style = #'slash

switches on the slashes.

There are shortcuts \improvisationOn (and an accompanying \improvisationOff) for this command sequence. They are used in the following example

     \new Staff \with {
       \consists Pitch_squash_engraver
     } \transpose c c' {
       e8 e g a a16(bes)(a8) g \improvisationOn
       e8
       ~e2~e8 f4 fis8
       ~fis2 \improvisationOff a16(bes) a8 g e
     }

5.15 Orchestral music

Orchestral music involves some special notation, both in the full score and the individual parts. This section explains how to tackle some common problems in orchestral music.

5.15.1 System start delimiters

Polyphonic scores consist of many staves. These staves can be constructed in three different ways

• The group is started with a brace at the left, and bar lines are connected. This is done with the GrandStaff context.

            \new GrandStaff
            \relative <<
              \new Staff { c1 c }
              \new Staff { c c }
            >>
       

  

• The group is started with a bracket, and bar lines are connected. This is done with the StaffGroup context

            \new StaffGroup
            \relative <<
              \new Staff { c1 c }
              \new Staff { c c }
            >>
       

  

• The group is started with a vertical line. Bar lines are not connected. This is the default for the score.

            \relative <<
              \new Staff { c1 c }
              \new Staff { c c }
            >>
       

  

See also

The bar lines at the start of each system are SystemStartBar , SystemStartBrace , and SystemStartBracket . Only one of these types is created in every context, and that type is determined by the property systemStartDelimiter.

5.15.2 Aligning to cadenzas

In an orchestral context, cadenzas present a special problem: when constructing a score that includes a cadenza, all other instruments should skip just as many notes as the length of the cadenza, otherwise they will start too soon or too late.

A solution to this problem are the functions mmrest-of-length and skip-of-length. These Scheme functions take a piece music as argument, and generate a \skip or multi rest, exactly as long as the piece. The use of mmrest-of-length is demonstrated in the following example.

     cadenza = \relative c' {
       c4 d8 << { e f g } \\ { d4. } >>
       g4 f2 g4 g
     }
     
     \new GrandStaff <<
       \new Staff { \cadenza c'4 }
       \new Staff {
         #(ly:export (mmrest-of-length cadenza))
         c'4
       }
     >>

5.15.3 Rehearsal marks

To print a rehearsal mark, use the \mark command

     c1 \mark \default
     c1 \mark \default
     c1 \mark #8
     c1 \mark \default
     c1 \mark \default

(The letter `I' is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions.)

The mark is incremented automatically if you use \mark \default, but you can also use an integer argument to set the mark manually. The value to use is stored in the property rehearsalMark.

The style is defined by the property markFormatter. It is a function taking the current mark (an integer) and the current context as argument. It should return a markup object. In the following example, markFormatter is set to a canned procedure. After a few measures, it is set to function that produces a boxed number.

     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
     c1 \mark \default
     c1 \mark \default
     \set Score.markFormatter
        = #(lambda (mark context)
            (make-bold-markup
             (make-box-markup (number->string mark))))
     c1 \mark \default
     c1 \mark \default
     c1

The file scm/translation-functions.scm contains the definitions of format-mark-numbers (the default format) and format-mark-letters. These can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.

The \mark command can also be used to put signs like coda, segno and fermatas on a bar line. Use \markup to to access the appropriate symbol

     c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts-ufermata" }
     c1

In the case of a line break, marks must also be printed at the end of the line, and not at the beginning. Use the following to force that behavior

\override Score.RehearsalMark
  #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible

See also

Program reference: MarkEvent , RehearsalMark .

Init files: scm/translation-functions.scm contains the definition of format-mark-numbers and format-mark-letters. They can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.

Examples: input/regression/rehearsal-mark-letter.ly,

input/regression/rehearsal-mark-number.ly.

5.15.4 Bar numbers

Bar numbers are printed by default at the start of the line. The number itself is stored in the currentBarNumber property, which is normally updated automatically for every measure.

Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of at the beginning of each line. This is illustrated in the following example, whose source is available as input/test/bar-number-regular-interval.ly

Bar numbers can be manually changed by setting the Staff.currentBarNumber property

     \relative c' {
       \repeat unfold 4 {c4 c c c} \break
       \set Score.currentBarNumber = #50
       \repeat unfold 4 {c4 c c c}
     }

See also

Program reference: BarNumber .

Examples: input/test/bar-number-every-five-reset.ly, and input/test/bar-number-regular-interval.ly.

Bugs

Bar numbers can collide with the StaffGroup bracket, if there is one at the top. To solve this, the padding property of BarNumber can be used to position the number correctly.

5.15.5 Instrument names

In an orchestral score, instrument names are printed left side of the staves.

This can be achieved by setting Staff .instrument and Staff .instr. This will print a string before the start of the staff. For the first start, instrument is used, for the next ones instr is used.

     \set Staff.instrument = "Ploink "
     \set Staff.instr = "Plk "
     c1
     \break
     c''

You can also use markup texts to construct more complicated instrument names, for example

     \set Staff.instrument = \markup {
       \column < "Clarinetti"
                 { "in B" \smaller \flat } > }
     c''1

For longer instrument names, it may be useful to increase the indent setting in the \layout block.

See also

Program reference: InstrumentName .

Bugs

When you put a name on a grand staff or piano staff the width of the brace is not taken into account. You must add extra spaces to the end of the name to avoid a collision.

5.15.6 Transpose

A music expression can be transposed with \transpose. The syntax is

\transpose from to musicexpr

This means that musicexpr is transposed by the interval between the pitches from and to: any note with pitch from is changed to to.

For example, consider a piece written in the key of D major. If this piece is a little too low for its performer, it can be transposed up to E major with

\transpose d e ...

Consider a part written for violin (a C instrument). If this part is to be played on the A clarinet, the following transposition will produce the appropriate part

\transpose a c ...

\transpose distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both \transpose c cis or \transpose c des will transpose up half a tone. The first version will print sharps and the second version will print flats

     mus = { \key d \major cis d fis g }
     \context Staff {
       \clef "F" \mus
       \clef "G"
       \transpose c g' \mus
       \transpose c f' \mus
     }

See also

Program reference: TransposedMusic , and UntransposableMusic .

Bugs

If you want to use both \transpose and \relative, you must put \transpose outside of \relative, since \relative will have no effect music that appears inside a \transpose.

5.15.7 Instrument transpositions

The key of a transposing instrument can also be specified. This applies to many wind instruments, for example, clarinets (B-flat, A and E-flat), horn (F) and trumpet (B-flat, C, D and E-flat).

The transposition is entered after the keyword \transposition

\transposition bes   %% B-flat clarinet

This command sets the property instrumentTransposition. The value of this property is used for MIDI output and quotations. It does not affect how notes are printed in the current staff.

The pitch to use for \transposition should correspond to the transposition of the notes. For example, when entering a score in concert pitch, typically all voices are entered in C, so they should be entered as

clarinet = {
  \transposition c'
  ...
}
saxophone = {
  \transposition c'
  ...
}

The command \transposition should be used when the music is entered from a (transposed) orchestral part. For example, in classical horn parts, the tuning of the instrument is often changed during a piece. When copying the notes from the part, use \transposition, e.g.

\transposition d'
c'4^"in D"
...
\transposition g'
c'4^"in G"
...

5.15.8 Multi measure rests

Multi measure rests are entered using `R'. It is specifically meant for full bar rests and for entering parts: the rest can expand to fill a score with rests, or it can be printed as a single multimeasure rest. This expansion is controlled by the property Score.skipBars. If this is set to true, empty measures will not be expanded, and the appropriate number is added automatically

     \time 4/4 r1 | R1 | R1*2
     \set Score.skipBars = ##t R1*17 R1*4

The 1 in R1 is similar to the duration notation used for notes. Hence, for time signatures other than 4/4, you must enter other durations. This can be done with augmentation dots or fractions

     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
     \time 3/4
     R2. | R2.*2
     \time 13/8
     R1*13/8
     R1*13/8*12 |
     \time 10/8 R4*5*4 |

An R spanning a single measure is printed as either a whole rest or a breve, centered in the measure regardless of the time signature.

If there are only a few measures of rest, LilyPond prints “church rests” (a series of rectangles) in the staff. To replace that with a simple rest, use MultiMeasureRest.expand-limit.

     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
     R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9
     \override MultiMeasureRest #'expand-limit = 1
     R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9

Texts can be added to multi-measure rests by using the note-markup syntax (see Text markup). A variable (\fermataMarkup) is provided for adding fermatas

     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
     \time 3/4
     R2.*10^\markup { \italic "ad lib." }
     R2.^\fermataMarkup

If you want to have a text on the left end of a multi-measure rest, attach the text to a zero-length skip note, i.e.

s1*0^"Allegro"
R1*4

See also

Program reference: MultiMeasureRestEvent , MultiMeasureTextEvent , MultiMeasureRestMusicGroup , and MultiMeasureRest .

The layout object MultiMeasureRestNumber is for the default number, and MultiMeasureRestText for user specified texts.

Bugs

It is not possible to use fingerings (e.g., R1-4) to put numbers over multi-measure rests.

There is no way to automatically condense multiple rests into a single multimeasure rest. Multi measure rests do not take part in rest collisions.

Be careful when entering multimeasure rests followed by whole notes. The following will enter two notes lasting four measures each

R1*4 cis cis

When skipBars is set, the result will look OK, but the bar numbering will be off.

5.15.9 Automatic part combining

Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and a due parts are identified and can be marked.

The syntax for part combining is

\partcombine musicexpr1 musicexpr2

The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part combiner: putting parts on one staff, and setting stem directions and polyphony

     \new Staff \partcombine
       \relative g' { g g a( b) c c r r }
       \relative g' { g g r4 r e e g g }

The first g appears only once, although it was specified twice (once in each part). Stem, slur and tie directions are set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unisono. The first part (with context called one) always gets up stems, and `solo', while the second (called two) always gets down stems and `Solo II'.

If you just want the merging parts, and not the textual markings, you may set the property printPartCombineTexts to false

     \new Staff <<
       \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f
       \partcombine
         \relative g' { g a( b) r }
         \relative g' { g r4 r f }
     >>

Both arguments to \partcombine will be interpreted as Voice contexts. If using relative octaves, \relative should be specified for both music expressions, i.e.

\partcombine
  \relative ... musicexpr1
  \relative ... musicexpr2

A \relative section that is outside of \partcombine has no effect on the pitches of musicexpr1 and musicexpr2.

See also

Program reference: PartCombineMusic , SoloOneEvent , and SoloTwoEvent , and UnisonoEvent .

Bugs

When printPartCombineTexts is set, when the two voices play the same notes on and off, the part combiner may typeset a2 more than once in a measure.

\partcombine cannot be inside \times.

\partcombine cannot be inside \relative.

Internally, the \partcombine interprets both arguments as Voices named one and two, and then decides when the parts can be combined. Consequently, if the arguments switch to differently named Voice contexts, the events in those will be ignored.

5.15.10 Hiding staves

In orchestral scores, staff lines that only have rests are usually removed. This saves some space. This style is called `French Score'. For Lyrics , ChordNames and FiguredBass , this is switched on by default. When these line of these contexts turn out empty after the line-breaking process, they are removed.

For normal staves, a specialized Staff context is available, which does the same: staves containing nothing (or only multi measure rests) are removed. The context definition is stored in \RemoveEmptyStaffContext variable. Observe how the second staff in this example disappears in the second line

     \layout {
       \context { \RemoveEmptyStaffContext }
     }
     
     {
       \relative c' <<
         \new Staff { e4 f g a \break c1 }
         \new Staff { c4 d e f \break R1 }
       >>
     }

The first system shows all staves in full. If empty staves should be removed from the first system too, set remove-first to false in RemoveEmptyVerticalGroup .

Another application is making ossia sections, i.e., alternative melodies on a separate piece of staff, with help of a Frenched staff. See input/test/ossia.ly for an example.

5.15.11 Different editions from one source

The \tag command marks music expressions with a name. These tagged expressions can be filtered out later. With this mechanism it is possible to make different versions of the same music source.

In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one for the full score, and one with cue notes for the instrumental part

c1
<<
  \tag #'part <<
    R1 \\
    {
      \set fontSize = #-1
      c4_"cue" f2 g4 }
  >>
  \tag #'score R1
>>
c1

The same can be applied to articulations, texts, etc.: they are made by prepending

-\tag #your-tag

to an articulation, for example,

c1-\tag #'part ^4

This defines a note with a conditional fingering indication.

By applying the \keepWithTag and \removeWithTag commands, tagged expressions can be filtered. For example,

<<
  the music
  \keepWithTag #'score the music
  \keepWithTag #'part the music
>>

would yield

The argument of the \tag command should be a symbol, or a list of symbols, for example,

\tag #'(original-part transposed-part) ...

See also

Examples: input/regression/tag-filter.ly.

Bugs

Multiple rests are not merged if you create the score with both tagged sections.

5.15.12 Quoting other voices

With quotations, fragments of other parts can be inserted into a part directly. Before a part can be quoted, it must be marked especially as quotable. This is done with code \addquote command.

\addquote name music

Here, name is an identifying string. The music is any kind of music. This is an example of \addquote

\addquote clarinet \relative c' {
  f4 fis g gis
}

This command must be entered at toplevel, i.e. outside any music blocks.

After calling \addquote, the quotation may then be done with \quote,

\quote name duration

During a part, a piece of music can be quoted with the \quote command.

\quote clarinet 2.

This would cite three quarter notes (2. is a dotted half note) of the previously added clarinet voice.

More precisely, it takes the current time-step of the part being printed, and extracts the notes at the corresponding point of the \addquoted voice. Therefore, the argument to \addquote should be the entire part of the voice to be quoted, including any rests at the beginning.

Quotations take into account the transposition of both source and target instruments, if they are specified using the \transposition command.

     \addquote clarinet \relative c' {
       \transposition bes
       f4 fis g gis
     }
     
     {
       e'8 f'8 \quote clarinet 2
     }

The type of events that are present in cue notes can be trimmed with the quotedEventTypes property. The default value is (note-event rest-event), which means that only notes of and rests of the cued voice end up in the \quote. Setting

\set Staff.quotedEventTypes =
       #'(note-event articulation-event dynamic-event)

will quote notes (but no rests), together with scripts and dynamics.

Bugs

Only the contents of the first Voice occurring in an \addquote command will be considered for quotation, so music can not contain \new and \context Voice statements that would switch to a different Voice.

Quoting grace notes is broken and can even cause LilyPond to crash.

See also

In this manual: Instrument transpositions.

Examples: input/regression/quote.ly input/regression/quote-transposition.ly

Program reference: QuoteMusic .

5.15.13 Formatting cue notes

The previous section deals with inserting notes from another voice. When making a part, these notes need to be specially formatted. Here is an example of formatted cue notes

smaller = {
  \set fontSize = #-2
  \override Stem  #'length = #5.5
  \override Beam  #'thickness = #0.384
  \override Beam  #'space-function =
    #(lambda (beam mult) (* 0.8 (Beam::space_function beam mult)))
}

{
  \set Staff.instrument = #"Horn in F"
  \set Score.skipBars = ##t
  R1*21
  << {
    \once \override Staff.MultiMeasureRest  #'staff-position = #-6
    R1
  }
  \new Voice {
    s2
    \clef tenor
    \smaller
    r8^"Bsn." c'8  f'8[ f'8]
    \clef treble
  }
  >>
  c'8^"Horn" cis'
  eis'4 fis'4
}

   

There are a couple of points to take care of:

• The multi rest of the original part should be moved up or down during the cue.
• Cue notes have smaller font sizes.
• When cued notes have a clef change relative to the original part, the clef should be restored after the cue section. This minimizes confusion for the reader,
• When the original part starts, this should be marked with the name of the instrument, in this case “Horn.” Of course, the cue part is marked with the instrument playing the cue.

5.16 Ancient notation

Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation and Gregorian Chant notation. There is also limited support for figured bass notation.

Many graphical objects provide a style property, see

• Ancient note heads,
• Ancient accidentals,
• Ancient rests,
• Ancient clefs,
• Ancient flags,
• Ancient time signatures.

By manipulating such a grob property, the typographical appearance of the affected graphical objects can be accommodated for a specific notation flavor without need for introducing any new notational concept.

In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section Articulations, specific articulation signs for ancient notation are provided.

• Ancient articulations

Other aspects of ancient notation can not that easily be expressed as in terms of just changing a style property of a graphical object or adding articulation signs. Some notational concepts are introduced specifically for ancient notation,

• Custodes,
• Divisiones,
• Ligatures.

If this all is too much of documentation for you, and you just want to dive into typesetting without worrying too much about the details on how to customize a context, you may have a look at the predefined contexts. Use them to set up predefined style-specific voice and staff contexts, and directly go ahead with the note entry,

• Gregorian Chant contexts,
• Mensural contexts.

There is limited support for figured bass notation which came up during the baroque period.

• Figured bass

Here are all suptopics at a glance:

5.16.1 Ancient note heads

For ancient notation, a note head style other than the default style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the style property of the NoteHead object to baroque, neomensural or mensural. The baroque style differs from the default style only in using a square shape for \breve note heads. The neomensural style differs from the baroque style in that it uses rhomboidal heads for whole notes and all smaller durations. Stems are centered on the note heads. This style is in particular useful when transcribing mensural music, e.g., for the incipit. The mensural style finally produces note heads that mimic the look of note heads in historic printings of the 16th century.

The following example demonstrates the neomensural style

     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
     \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
     a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16

When typesetting a piece in Gregorian Chant notation, the Gregorian_ligature_engraver will automatically select the proper note heads, such there is no need to explicitly set the note head style. Still, the note head style can be set e.g. to vaticana_punctum to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, a Mensural_ligature_engraver is used to automatically assemble mensural ligatures. See Ligatures for how ligature engravers work.

See also

Examples: input/regression/note-head-style.ly gives an overview over all available note head styles.

5.16.2 Ancient accidentals

Use the style property of grob Accidental to select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are mensural, vaticana, hufnagel and medicaea.

As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a different style, as demonstrated in input/test/ancient-accidentals.ly.

Similarly to local accidentals, the style of the key signature can be controlled by the style property of the KeySignature grob.

See also

In this manual: Pitches, Chromatic alterations and Accidentals give a general introduction into the use of accidentals. Key signature gives a general introduction into the use of key signatures.

Program reference: KeySignature .

Examples: input/test/ancient-accidentals.ly.

5.16.3 Ancient rests

Use the style property of grob Rest to select ancient accidentals. Supported styles are classical, neomensural and mensural. classical differs from the default style only in that the quarter rest looks like a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The neomensural style suits well for e.g., the incipit of a transcribed mensural piece of music. The mensural style finally mimics the appearance of rests as in historic prints of the 16th century.

The following example demonstrates the neomensural style

     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
     \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
     r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16

There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be taken. See input/test/rests.ly for a chart of all rests.

There are no rests in Gregorian Chant notation; instead, it uses Divisiones.

See also

In this manual: Rests gives a general introduction into the use of rests.

5.16.4 Ancient clefs

LilyPond supports a variety of clefs, many of them ancient.

The following table shows all ancient clefs that are supported via the \clef command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs. Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line, as described in Clef. The note printed to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the c' with respect to that clef.

Description	Supported Clefs	Example
modern style mensural C clef	neomensural-c1, neomensural-c2, neomensural-c3, neomensural-c4
petrucci style mensural C clefs, for use on different staff lines (the examples shows the 2nd staff line C clef)	petrucci-c1, petrucci-c2, petrucci-c3, petrucci-c4, petrucci-c5
petrucci style mensural F clef	petrucci-f
petrucci style mensural G clef	petrucci-g
historic style mensural C clef	mensural-c1, mensural-c2, mensural-c3, mensural-c4
historic style mensural F clef	mensural-f
historic style mensural G clef	mensural-g
Editio Vaticana style do clef	vaticana-do1, vaticana-do2, vaticana-do3
Editio Vaticana style fa clef	vaticana-fa1, vaticana-fa2
Editio Medicaea style do clef	medicaea-do1, medicaea-do2, medicaea-do3
Editio Medicaea style fa clef	medicaea-fa1, medicaea-fa2
historic style hufnagel do clef	hufnagel-do1, hufnagel-do2, hufnagel-do3
historic style hufnagel fa clef	hufnagel-fa1, hufnagel-fa2
historic style hufnagel combined do/fa clef	hufnagel-do-fa

Modern style means “as is typeset in contemporary editions of transcribed mensural music”.

Petrucci style means “inspired by printings published by the famous engraver Petrucci (1466-1539)”.

Historic style means “as was typeset or written in historic editions (other than those of Petrucci)”.

Editio XXX style means “as is/was printed in Editio XXX”.

Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.

See also

In this manual: see Clef.

Bugs

The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.

5.16.5 Ancient flags

Use the flag-style property of grob Stem to select ancient flags. Besides the default flag style, only mensural style is supported

     \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
     \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
     \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
     \autoBeamOff
     c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
     c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32

Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is vertically aligned with a staff line.

There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural notation. Hence, when typesetting the incipit of a transcribed piece of mensural music, the default flag style should be used. There are no flags in Gregorian Chant notation.

Bugs

The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off due to a change in early 2.3.x.

Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout features of classical notation (which however are typically out of scope for mensural notation).

5.16.6 Ancient time signatures

There is limited support for mensural time signatures. The glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words, to get a particular mensural signature glyph with the \time n/m command, n and m have to be chosen according to the following table

Use the style property of grob TimeSignature to select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are neomensural and mensural. The above table uses the neomensural style. This style is appropriate for the incipit of transcriptions of mensural pieces. The mensural style mimics the look of historical printings of the 16th century.

The following examples shows the differences in style,

See also

This manual: Time signature gives a general introduction into the use of time signatures.

Bugs

Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For example, the ratio of 1 brevis = 3 semibrevis (tempus perfectum) must be made by hand, by setting

breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
...
{ c\breveTP f1 }

This sets breveTP to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.

The old6/8alt symbol (an alternate symbol for 6/8) is not addressable with \time. Use a \markup instead

5.16.7 Ancient articulations

In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section Articulations, articulation signs for ancient notation are provided. These are specifically designed for use with notation in Editio Vaticana style.

     \include "gregorian-init.ly"
     \score {
       \context VaticanaVoice {
         \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
         \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
         \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
         a4\ictus_"ictus" s1
         a4\circulus_"circulus" s1
         a4\semicirculus_"semicirculus" s1 s
         a4\accentus_"accentus" s1
         \[ a4_"episem" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a \episemFinis \]
       }
     }

Bugs

Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the correpsonding note heads.

5.16.8 Custodes

A custos (plural: custodes; Latin word for `guard') is a symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch of the first note(s) of the following line thus helping the performer to manage line breaks during performance.

Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the 17th century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant like the editio vaticana. There are different custos glyphs used in different flavors of notational style.

For typesetting custodes, just put a Custos_engraver into the Staff context when declaring the \layout block, as shown in the following example

\layout {
  \context {
    \Staff
    \consists Custos_engraver
    Custos \override #'style = #'mensural
  }
}

The result looks like this

The custos glyph is selected by the style property. The styles supported are vaticana, medicaea, hufnagel and mensural. They are demonstrated in the following fragment

See also

Program reference: Custos .

Examples: input/regression/custos.ly.

5.16.9 Divisiones

A divisio (plural: divisiones; Latin word for `division') is a staff context symbol that is used to structure Gregorian music into phrases and sections. The musical meaning of divisio minima, divisio maior and divisio maxima can be characterized as short, medium and long pause, somewhat like the breathmarks from Breath marks. The finalis sign not only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.

To use divisiones, include the file gregorian-init.ly. It contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting \divisioMinima, \divisioMaior, \divisioMaxima, and \finalis at proper places in the input. Some editions use virgula or caesura instead of divisio minima. Therefore, gregorian-init.ly also defines \virgula and \caesura

Predefined commands

\virgula, \caesura, \divisioMinima, \divisioMaior, \divisioMaxima, \finalis.

See also

In this manual: Breath marks.

Program reference: BreathingSign , BreathingSignEvent .

Examples: input/test/divisiones.ly.

5.16.10 Ligatures

A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes.

Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in \[ and \]. Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature. By default, the LigatureBracket engraver just puts a square bracket above the ligature

     \transpose c c' {
       \[ g c a f d' \]
       a g f
       \[ e f a g \]
     }

To select a specific style of ligatures, a proper ligature engraver has to be added to the Voice context, as explained in the following subsections. Only white mensural ligatures are supported with certain limitations.

Bugs

Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time, and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not correctly align with ligatures.

Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to be collected and printed in front of it.

Augmentum dots within ligatures are not handled correctly.

5.16.10.1 White mensural ligatures

There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.

To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block the Mensural_ligature_engraver has to be put into the Voice context, and remove the Ligature_bracket_engraver

\layout {
  \context {
    \Voice
    \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
    \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
  }
}

There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while to get accustomed, it has the great advantage that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic transcription of the ligatures.

For example,

\set Score.timing = ##f
\set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
\override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
\override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
\clef "petrucci-g"
\[ g\longa c\breve a\breve f\breve d'\longa \]
s4
\[ e1 f1 a\breve g\longa \]

Without replacing Ligature_bracket_engraver with Mensural_ligature_engraver , the same music transcribes to the following

Bugs

The implementation is experimental. It may output strange warnings, incorrect results, and might even crash on more complex ligatures.

5.16.10.2 Gregorian square neumes ligatures

There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures, lyrics alignment and proper accidentals handling.

The following table contains the extended neumes table of the 2nd volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (Liber Hymnarius), published 1983 by the monks of Solesmes.

Neuma aut Neumarum Elementa	Figurae Rectae	Figurae Liquescentes Auctae	Figurae Liquescentes Deminutae
1. Punctum
2. Virga
3. Apostropha vel Stropha
4. Oriscus
5. Clivis vel Flexa
6. Podatus vel Pes
7. Pes Quassus
8. Quilisma Pes
9. Podatus Initio Debilis
10. Torculus
11. Torculus Initio Debilis
12. Porrectus
13. Climacus
14. Scandicus
15. Salicus
16. Trigonus

Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the input language for neumes does not reflect the typographical appearance, but is designed to focus on musical meaning. For example, \[ a \pes b \flexa g \] produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads, while \[ a \flexa g \pes b \] produces a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different style of Gregorian chant notation.

The following table shows the code fragments that produce the ligatures in the above neumes table. The letter in the first column in each line of the below table indicates to which ligature in the above table it refers. The second column gives the name of the ligature. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this ligature, using g, a and b as example pitches.

#	Name	Input Language
a	Punctum	\[ b \]
b	Punctum Inclinatum	\[ \inclinatum b \]
c	Punctum Auctum Ascendens	\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]
d	Punctum Auctum Descendens	\[ \auctum \descendens b \]
e	Punctum Inclinatum Auctum	\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]
f	Punctum Inclinatum Parvum	\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]
g	Virga	\[ \virga b \]
h	Stropha	\[ \stropha b \]
i	Stropha Aucta	\[ \stropha \auctum b \]
j	Oriscus	\[ \oriscus b \]
k	Clivis vel Flexa	\[ b \flexa g \]
l	Clivis Aucta Descendens	\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
m	Clivis Aucta Ascendens	\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]
n	Cephalicus	\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]
o	Podatus vel Pes	\[ g \pes b \]
p	Pes Auctus Descendens	\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
q	Pes Auctus Ascendens	\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]
r	Epiphonus	\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]
s	Pes Quassus	\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]
t	Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens	\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
u	Quilisma Pes	\[ \quilisma g \pes b \]
v	Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens	\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
w	Pes Initio Debilis	\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]
x	Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis	\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
y	Torculus	\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]
z	Torculus Auctus Descendens	\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
A	Torculus Deminutus	\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
B	Torculus Initio Debilis	\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]
C	Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis	\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]
D	Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis	\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]
E	Porrectus	\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]
F	Porrectus Auctus Descendens	\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
G	Porrectus Deminutus	\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]
H	Climacus	\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]
I	Climacus Auctus	\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]
J	Climacus Deminutus	\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]
K	Scandicus	\[ g \pes a \virga b \]
L	Scandicus Auctus Descendens	\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
M	Scandicus Deminutus	\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]
N	Salicus	\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]
O	Salicus Auctus Descendens	\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]
P	Trigonus	\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]

Predefined commands

The following head prefixes are supported

\virga, \stropha, \inclinatum, \auctum, \descendens, \ascendens, \oriscus, \quilisma, \deminutum.

Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For example, either \descendens or \ascendens can be applied to a head, but not both to the same head.

Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the \pes and \flexa infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody, respectively.

5.16.11 Gregorian Chant contexts

The predefined VaticanaVoiceContext and VaticanaStaffContext can be used to engrave a piece of Gregorian Chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates

     \include "gregorian-init.ly"
     \score {
       <<
         \context VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
           \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
             \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
             \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
             f \divisioMinima
             \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
             c' \divisioMinima \break
             \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
             \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
           }
         }
         \lyricsto "cantus" \new Lyrics {
           San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
         }
       >>
     }

5.16.12 Mensural contexts

The predefined MensuralVoiceContext and MensuralStaffContext can be used to engrave a piece in mensural style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates

     \score {
       <<
         \context MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
           \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
             c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
             f\breve
             \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
             c'\longa
             c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
             fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
           }
         }
         \lyricsto "discantus" \new Lyrics {
           San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
         }
       >>
     }

5.16.13 Figured bass

LilyPond has limited support for figured bass

     <<
       \context Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais }
       \context FiguredBass \figuremode {
         < 6 >4 < 7 >8 < 6+ [_!] >
         < 6 >4 <6 5 [3+] >
       }
     >>

The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input mode, introduced by \figuremode, where you can enter bass figures as numbers, and there is a context called FiguredBass that takes care of making BassFigure objects.

In figures input mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by < and >. The duration is entered after the >

<4 6>

Accidentals are added when you append -, ! and + to the numbers

<4- 6+ 7!>

Spaces or dashes may be inserted by using _. Brackets are introduced with [ and ]

< [4 6] 8 [_! 12] >

Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord support, it works much simpler. The \figuremode mode simply stores the numbers , and FiguredBass context prints them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches, and no realizations of the bass are played in the MIDI file.

Internally, the code produces markup texts. You can use any of the markup text properties to override formatting. For example, the vertical spacing of the figures may be set with baseline-skip.

See also

Program reference: BassFigureEvent music, BassFigure object, and FiguredBass context.

Bugs

Slash notation for alterations is not supported.

5.17 Contemporary notation

In the 20th century, composers have greatly expanded the musical vocabulary. With this expansion, many innovations in musical notation have been tried. The book “Music Notation in the 20th century” by Kurt Stone gives a comprehensive overview (see Literature list). In general, the use of new, innovative notation makes a piece harder to understand and perform and its use should therefore be avoided. For this reason, support for contemporary notation in LilyPond is limited.

5.17.1 Polymetric notation

Double time signatures are not supported explicitly, but they can be faked. In the next example, the markup for the time signature is created with a markup text. This markup text is inserted in the TimeSignature grob.

% create 2/4 + 5/8
tsMarkup =\markup {
  \number {
    \column < "2" "4" >
    \musicglyph #"scripts-stopped"
    \bracket \column < "5" "8" >
  }
}

{
  \override Staff.TimeSignature #'print-function = #Text_interface::print
  \override Staff.TimeSignature #'text = #tsMarkup
  \time 3/2
  c'2 \bar ":" c'4 c'4.
}

   

Each staff can also have its own time signature. This is done by moving the Timing_engraver to Staff context.

\layout {
  \context { \Score \remove "Timing_engraver" }
  \context { \Staff \consists "Timing_engraver" }
}

Now, each staff has its own time signature.

<<
  \new Staff {
    \time 3/4
    c4 c c | c c c |
  }
  \new Staff {
    \time 2/4
    c4 c | c c | c c
  }
  \new Staff {
    \time 3/8
    c4. c8 c c c4. c8 c c
  }
>>

A different form of polymetric notation is where note lengths have different values across staves.

This notation can be created by setting a common time signature for each staff but replacing it manually using timeSignatureFraction to the desired fraction. Then the printed durations in each staff are scaled to the common time signature. The latter is done with \compressmusic, which is similar to \times, but does not create a tuplet bracket.

In this example, music with the time signatures of 3/4, 9/8 and 10/8 are used in parallel. In the second staff, shown durations are multiplied by 2/3, so that 2/3 * 9/8 = 3/4, and in the third staff, shown durations are multiplied by 3/5, so that 3/5 * 10/8 = 3/4.

     \relative c' { <<
       \new Staff {
         \time 3/4
         c4 c c | c c c |
       }
       \new Staff {
         \time 3/4
         \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(9 . 8)
         \compressmusic #'(2 . 3)
           \repeat unfold 6 { c8[ c c] }
       }
       \new Staff {
         \time 3/4
         \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(10 . 8)
         \compressmusic #'(3 . 5) {
           \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c c] }
           \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c] }
           | c4. c4. \times 2/3 { c8 c c } c4
         }
       }
     >> }

Bugs

When using different time signatures in parallel, the spacing is aligned vertically, but bar lines distort the regular spacing.

5.17.2 Clusters

A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played. They can be denoted as the envelope of a set of notes. They are entered by applying the function makeClusters to a sequence of chords, e.g.

     \makeClusters { <c e > <b f'> }

The following example (from input/regression/cluster.ly) shows what the result looks like

Ordinary notes and clusters can be put together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between ordinary notes and clusters.

See also

Program reference: ClusterSpanner , ClusterSpannerBeacon , Cluster_spanner_engraver , and ClusterNoteEvent .

Examples: input/regression/cluster.ly.

Bugs